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Regenerative therapy has rapidly developed as one of the most promising treatments for patients suffering from severe heart failure. Autologous bone marrow-derived cells and cardiac stem cells have been clinically applied for cell injection therapy for heart failure. As a next-generation therapy, tissue-engineered myocardial-patch transplantation has also been started clinically. As further advanced therapy, several researchers have started to fabricate three-dimensional beating myocardial tissues. One of the main problems in myocardial tissue engineering is neovascularization within the...