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Based on the concept of "conjecture and refutation" from the Popperian philosophy of science, i.e. looking for alternative causes, this book simplifies the design and inferences of human observational studies into two types: descriptive and causal.

Based on the concept of "conjecture and refutation" from the Popperian philosophy of science, i.e. looking for alternative causes, this book simplifies the design and inferences of human observational studies into two types: descriptive and causal.

Data Construction Method (DCM) based on the multiset division is proposed. The DCM can not only generate addition data within the domain value of the given sample for revealing the datas patterns, but also creates the membership function from the generated data for further applications. In this way, the DCM is taken to filling up the information gaps caused by small-sample-sets. To demonstrate the effectiveness of DCM, after presenting the DCMs theoretic background, properties, and algorithm, we compared the DCM with several existing approaches in estimating the population mean and...