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Biostatistics is the branch of statistics that deals with data relating to living organisms. This manual is a comprehensive guide to biostatistics for medical students. Beginning with an overview of bioethics in clinical research, an introduction to statistics, and discussion on research methodology, the following sections cover different statistical tests, data interpretation, probability, and other statistical concepts such as demographics and life tables. The final section explains report writing and applying for research grants and a chapter on 'measurement and error analysis' focuses on...

Inflammation, hypoxia, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and chemical mediators play a critical role in pathological angiogenesis, macular oedema and fibrosis in diabetes. Laser photocoagulation is still the currently approved gold standard for treatment of clinically significant macular oedema and proliferative diabetic retinopathy with strong evidence from large, multicentric, randomized controlled trials. Emerging treatments focus on pharmacologic interventions alone or in combination for improving prognosis. The body of evidence for pharmacologic interventions is growing and...