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Data Clustering is process of organizing data into specific groups, the characteristics of which are unknown. Data clustering has been studied for a long time by many researchers with different methods. Traditional clustering techniques has some drawbacks. In this book, we deals with such limitations of traditional clustering techniques. To overcome these drawback we have selected 'Nature-Inspired / Swarm Intelligence' technique that is 'Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO)' for data clustering. As we know, nature is always a source of inspiration. In last few decades, the research is stimulated...

The most important aim of endodontics is the preservation of natural teeth. Accurate working length determination is a crucial part of successful endodontic treatment. It is said that "Apex is the essence of endodontics." There are certain important features at the apex of the tooth with which one needs to be familiar if an accurate working length is to be determined. If calculated within correct limits, working length will play an important role in determining the success of the treatment, and conversely, if calculated incorrectly may doom the treatment to failure. Therefore it can be seen...