Wafer Manufacturing: Shaping of Single Crystal Silicon Wafers

ISBN-13: 9780470061213 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 304 str.

Imin Cao; Milind Bhagavat

Opis

Presenting all the major stages in wafer manufacturing, from crystals to prime wafers. This book first outlines the physics, associated metrology, process modelling and quality requirements and the goes on to discuss wafer forming and wafer surface preparation techniques.

Spis treści

Preface_xi1 Wafers and Semiconductors 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Semiconductor Revolution 31.2.1 Classification of materials 31.2.2 Semiconductor revolution today 61.2.3 Silicon wafers and solar cells 81.3 Silicon Wafers Used in Device Manufacturing (IC and MEMS) 81.3.1 Standard wafer diameters and sizes 91.3.2 Crystalline orientation of silicon wafers 111.3.3 The Moore's Law 131.4 Surface Properties and Quality Measurements of Wafers 141.4.1 Surface waviness: TTV, bow, and warp 141.4.2 Discussion on warp 191.4.3 Automated measurements of TTV, warp, bow and flatness 201.4.4 Wafer flatness 211.4.5 Nanotopography or Nanotopology 271.4.6 Surface roughness 281.5 Other Properties and Quality Requirements of Silicon Wafers 341.5.1 Mechanical and material properties 341.5.2 Property of silicon with anisotropy 341.5.3 Gravity-induced deflection of wafers 381.5.4 Wafer edge properties 391.6 Economics ofWafer Manufacturing 411.6.1 Three categories of wafers 411.6.2 Cost of silicon wafers 431.7 Summary 45References 462 WaferManufacturing: Generalized Processes and Flow 492.1 Introduction 492.2 Wafer Manufacturing: Generalized Process Flow 502.3 Crystal Growth 512.3.1 Melt growth 512.3.2 Vapor growth 612.3.3 Epitaxial growth 612.3.4 Casting polycrystalline crystal 632.3.5 Other crystal growth methods 642.4 Wafer Forming 642.4.1 Cropping 652.4.2 Trimming 652.4.3 Orientation identification 652.4.4 Slicing 652.4.5 Slicing using the Inner-diameter (ID) saw 662.4.6 Slicing using wiresaw 672.4.7 Other tools for slicing 682.4.8 Edge rounding 692.5 Wafer Polishing 712.5.1 Lapping 722.5.2 Grinding 722.5.3 Etching 732.5.4 Polishing 732.6 Wafer Preparing 742.6.1 Cleaning 742.6.2 Inspection 752.6.3 Packaging 752.7 Industrial Processes of Wafer Manufacturing 752.7.1 Crystal growth 762.7.2 Wafer forming 762.7.3 Wafer lapping and polishing 812.7.4 Wafer preparing 852.8 Summary 87References 883 Process Modeling and Manufacturing Processes 913.1 Introduction 913.2 Wafer Manufacturing and Brittle Materials 923.3 Ductile Machining Versus Brittle Machining 943.4 Abrasive Machining in Wafer Manufacturing 953.4.1 Bonded abrasive machining (BAM) 963.4.2 Free abrasive machining (FAM) 973.5 Abrasive Materials 983.5.1 Classification of the grain size of abrasive materials 983.5.2 Hardness of abrasive materials 1003.5.3 Commonly used abrasive materials in wafer manufacturing 1023.6 Ductile Machining of Brittle Materials 1053.6.1 Research on ductile machining and challenges 1063.6.2 Opportunity and future research 1063.7 Process Modeling of Manufacturing Processes 1073.7.1 Rolling-indenting and scratching-indenting process models of FAM 1083.7.2 Comparison between wiresawing and lapping 1113.7.3 Other aspects of engineering modeling 1133.8 Abrasive Slurry in FAM Processes 1133.8.1 Composition of abrasive slurry 1143.8.2 Comparison of water and glycol as carrier fluid for slurry 1163.8.3 Recycling of abrasive grits in slurry 1173.9 Summary 119References 1204 Wafer Slicing Using a Modern Slurry Wiresaw and Other Saws 1254.1 Introduction 1254.2 The ModernWiresaw Technology 1264.2.1 Historical perspectives of saws using wire 1274.2.2 The rise of PV industry and wafer slicing 1294.3 The three categories of saws for wafer slicing 1304.4 Inner-diameter (ID) saw 1314.5 The modern slurry wiresaw 1344.5.1 The control and program console 1354.5.2 The wire management unit 1354.5.3 Uni-directional versus bi-directional wire motion 1404.5.4 The slicing compartment 1444.5.5 Directions of ingot feeding 1454.5.6 Consumables and other operations 1474.6 Comparison between the ID saw and wiresaw 1484.7 Research Issues in Wiresaw Manufacturing Processes 1534.8 Summary 154References 1555 Modeling of the WiresawManufacturing Process and Material Characteristics 1615.1 Introduction 1615.2 The rolling-indenting model 1645.3 Vibration modeling and analysis 1675.3.1 A historical perspective on the vibration of wire 1685.3.2 Equation of motion of a moving wire 1695.3.3 Modal analysis of a undamped moving wire 1705.3.4 Response for point-wise harmonic excitation 1715.3.5 Natural frequency of vibration and stability 1725.3.6 Numerical solution by the Galerkin's method 1765.3.7 Response of multiple-point and distributed excitations 1775.3.8 Frequency response of multiple excitations 1795.3.9 Vibration responses of a moving wire with damping 1815.3.10 Discussions 1835.4 Damping factor of the slurry wiresaw system 1855.5 Elasto-hydrodynamic process modeling 1885.5.1 Approach of modeling of EHD in wiresawing process 1895.5.2 TheoreticalModeling 1905.5.3 Results of the EHD analysis 1925.5.4 Implications related to floating machining and rolling-indentingmodeling of modern slurry wiresaws 1945.5.5 Important conclusions from the elsto-hydrodynamicmodeling 1975.6 Thermal Management 1985.7 Wire, Wire Web, and Slurry Management 1995.7.1 Real-time and on-line monitoring of wire wear 1995.7.2 Monitoring the pitch of the wire web spacing 2025.7.3 Mixing ratio of slurry consisting of abrasive grits and carrier fluid 2055.8 Summary 206References 2076 Diamond-ImpregatedWire Saws and Sawing Process 2136.1 Introduction 2136.2 Manufacturing processes of diamond-impregnated wires 2166.2.1 The resinoid wires 2166.2.2 The electroplated wires 2196.2.3 Machines and operations of diamond wire saws 2216.3 Slicing Mechanism of DiamondWire Saw 2236.4 Properties of Wafers Sliced by DiamondWire Saws 2286.4.1 Wafer surface 2286.4.2 Wafer fracture strength 2296.4.3 Residual stress and stress relaxation 2306.4.4 PV wafer efficiency 2306.4.5 Cost of wafering 2316.5 Slicing Performance with Different Process Parameters 2316.5.1 Effect of wire speed 2326.5.2 Effect of feed rate 2326.5.3 Effect of grain density 2326.5.4 Effect of wire tension 2336.6 Summary 233References 2357 Lapping 2397.1 Introduction 2397.2 Fundamentals of Lapping and FAM 2407.3 Various Configurations and Types of Lapping Operation 2447.3.1 Single-sided lapping 2517.3.2 Double-sided lapping 2527.3.3 Soft-pad lapping 2537.3.4 Further references 2537.4 Lapping and Preliminary Planarization 2537.4.1 Quality driven needs for preliminary planarization 2547.4.2 Cost driven needs for preliminary planarization 2557.5 Technical Challenges and Advances in Lapping 2567.5.1 Technical Considerations 2587.5.2 Advances in Lapping 2597.6 Summary 259References 2608 Chemical Mechanical Polishing 2638.1 Introduction 2638.2 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) 2648.2.1 Schematic illustration of CMP process and system 2658.2.2 Measurement and evaluation of silicon wafer after polishing 2688.2.3 Specifications for polished silicon wafers 2698.2.4 Types of CMP processes 2718.2.5 Challenges of CMP technology 2718.3 Polishing Pad Technology 2728.3.1 Polishing pad conditioning 2738.4 Polishing Slurry Technology 2738.5 Edge Polishing 2748.5.1 Fundamentals of edge polishing 2758.5.2 Challenges of edge polishing 2768.6 Summary 276References 2779 Grinding, Edge Grinding, Etching and Surface Cleaning 2799.1 Wafer Grinding for Surface Processing 2799.1.1 Wafer grinding methods 2809.1.2 Grinding wheel technology 2849.1.3 Types of grinding operations 2859.1.4 Technical challenges and advances in grinding 2869.2 Edge Grinding 2879.2.1 Fundamentals of edge grinding 2889.2.2 Technical challenges in edge grinding 2909.3 Etching 2919.3.1 Acid etching 2919.3.2 Caustic etching 2929.3.3 Preferential etching 2929.3.4 Technical challenges and advances in etching 2969.4 Surface Cleaning 2979.4.1 Impurities on surface of silicon wafer 2979.4.2 Various cleaning steps in wafer process flow 2989.5 RCA Standard Clean 3009.5.1 Introduction 3009.5.2 RCA cleaning protocol 3009.5.3 Techniques and variations of RCA method 3039.5.4 The evolution of silicon wafer cleaning technology 3049.6 Summary 304References 30610 WaferMetrology and Optical Techniques 31110.1 Introduction 31110.2 Evaluation and Inspection ofWafer Surface 31110.2.1 Wafer surface specifications 31210.3 Wafer Defects and Inspection 31610.3.1 Defect classification 31610.3.2 Impacts of wafer defects on device yield and performance 31910.3.3 Defect inspection techniques and systems 32010.4 Measurement ofWafer Surface Using Moir´e Optical Metrology 32410.4.1 Measurement of wafer surface using shadow moir´e with Talbot effect 32510.4.2 Enhancing the resolution of shadow moir´e with "phase shifting" 33110.4.3 Wire web management using optical metrology technology 34510.5 Summary 346References 34711 Conclusion 35311.1 (I) From Crystal to Prime Wafers 35311.2 (II)Wafer Forming 35511.3 (III)Wafer Surface Preparation and Management 35611.4 Final Remarks 357

O autorze

Imin Kao, is Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the State University of New York in Stony Brook, USA. He is Faculty Director of the Undergraduate College in Information and Technology Studies. He holds three patents, and his research foci include robotic manipulation with soft contacts and smart contact surface technology using MEMS.Chunhui Chung, is Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the National Cheng Kung University in Taiwan.