ISBN-13: 9781119716501 / Angielski / Miękka / 2021 / 624 str.
ISBN-13: 9781119716501 / Angielski / Miękka / 2021 / 624 str.
Preface xixPart I States of Aggregation 11 Atoms and Bonding 31.1 The Electron Structure of Atoms 31.1.1 Hydrogen 31.1.2 Many Electron Atoms 41.1.3 Orbital Shapes 61.1.4 Electron Spin and Electron Configuration 81.1.5 Atomic Energy Levels 91.2 Ionic Bonding 121.2.1 Ionic Size and Bonding 121.2.2 Lattice Energies 131.2.3 Atomistic Simulation 141.3 Covalent Bonding 151.3.1 Bond Geometry 151.3.2 Bond Energies 181.4 Metallic Bonding 211.4.1 Molecular Orbitals and Energy Bands 211.4.2 The Free Electron Gas 221.4.3 Energy Bands 241.4.4 Bands in Ionic and Covalent Solids 271.5 Weak Chemical Bonds 281.6 Computation of Material Properties 31Further Reading 31The Following References Expand the Material in this Chapter 31A Dictionary of Quantum Mechanical Language and Expressions is 32Ionic Radii are Discussed and Tabulated by 32The Computation of Properties is Described in 32Problems and Exercises 32Calculations and Questions 342 Microstructures and Phase Relationships 372.1 Macrostructure, Microstructure, and Nanostructure 372.1.1 Crystalline Solids 372.1.2 Non-crystalline Solids 372.1.3 Partly Crystalline Solids 402.1.4 Nanoparticles and Nanostructures 402.2 The Development of Microstructures 432.2.1 Solidification 432.2.2 Processing 442.3 Phase Diagrams 452.3.1 One-Component (Unary) Systems 452.3.2 Two-Component (Binary) Systems 482.3.2.1 Simple Binary Diagrams: Nickel-Copper as an Example 482.3.2.2 Binary Systems Containing a Eutectic Point: Tin-Lead as an Example 492.3.2.3 Intermediate Phases 522.3.2.4 The Iron-Carbon System Close to Iron 522.4 Ternary Systems 54References 57Further Reading 58Problems and Exercises 58Calculations and Questions 603 Crystal Structures and Defects 653.1 Crystal Geometry 653.1.1 Crystal Systems 653.1.2 Crystal Lattices 663.1.3 Symmetry and Crystal Classes 683.2 Crystal Structures 693.2.1 Unit Cells and Atomic Coordinates 693.2.2 Crystal Structures 703.2.2.1 The Face-Centred Cubic (fcc, A1) Structure 703.2.2.2 The Body-Centred Cubic (bcc, A2) Structure 703.2.2.3 The Hexagonal Close-Packed (hcp, A3) Structure 703.2.2.4 The Diamond Structure 713.2.2.5 The Graphite Structure 713.2.2.6 The Halite (Rock Salt, Sodium Chloride) Structure 713.2.2.7 The Perovskite Structure 723.2.2.8 The Spinel Structure 723.2.2.9 Lattice Parameters and Vegard's Law 743.3 Crystal Planes and Directions 743.3.1 Miller Indices 743.3.2 Hexagonal Crystals and Miller-Bravais Indices 763.3.3 Directions 783.3.4 Interplanar Spacings 793.4 Crystal Density 803.4.1 Density Estimation 803.4.2 The Density of NaCl 813.4.3 The Density of Crystals with a Variable Composition 813.5 Structural Relationships 823.5.1 Sphere Packing 823.5.2 Ionic Structures in Terms of Anion Packing 843.5.3 Polyhedral Representations 863.6 Point Defects 873.6.1 Point Defects in Crystals of the Elements 883.6.2 Solid Solutions 893.6.3 The Schottky and Frenkel Defects 903.6.4 Non-stoichiometric Compounds 913.6.5 Point Defect Notation 933.7 Linear, Planar, and Volume defects 953.7.1 Dislocations 953.7.2 Planar Defects 963.7.3 Volume Defects: Precipitates 99Reference 99Further Reading 100Crystal Structures 100Defects 100Problems and Exercises 100Calculations and Questions 1024 Solids: Overview 1094.1 Metals 1094.1.1 Structures 1094.1.2 Metallic Radii 1104.1.3 Alloy Solid Solutions 1124.1.4 Metallic Glasses and Quasicrystals 1154.1.5 The Principal Properties of Metals 1164.2 Crystalline Silicates and Inorganic Ceramic Materials 1184.2.1 Silicate Structures 1194.2.2 Some Non-silicate Ceramics 1224.2.3 The Preparation and Processing of Ceramics 1254.2.4 The Principal Properties of Ceramics 1264.3 Silicate Glasses 1264.3.1 Bonding and Structure of Silicate Glasses 1274.3.2 Glass Deformation 1294.3.3 Strengthened Glass 1314.3.4 Glass-Ceramics 1324.4 Polymers and Organic Materials 1334.4.1 Polymers 1334.4.2 Polymer Formation 1344.4.3 Microstructures of Polymers 1384.4.4 Elastomers 1434.4.5 Production of Polymers 1454.4.6 Organic Framework Structures: MOFs and COFs 1484.4.7 The Principal Properties of Polymers 1514.5 Composite Materials 1524.5.1 Fibre-Reinforced Materials 1524.5.2 Cement and Concrete 154Reference 157Further Reading 157Metals 157Bulk Metallic Glasses 157Ceramics and Glass 157Zeolites 157Polymers 157Metal-organic Frameworks 158Covalent Organic Frameworks 158Composites 158Problems and Exercises 158Calculations and Questions 160Part II Reactions and Transformations 1655 Diffusion and Ionic Conductivity 1675.1 Self-Diffusion and Tracer Diffusion 1675.2 Non-steady-state and Steady-State Diffusion 1695.3 Temperature Variation of Diffusion Coefficient 1715.4 The Effect of Impurities 1715.5 RandomWalk Diffusion 1715.6 Diffusion in Solids 1755.7 Self-Diffusion in One Dimension 1765.8 Self-Diffusion in Crystals 1785.9 The Arrhenius Equation and Point Defects 1785.10 Correlation Factors for Self-Diffusion 1805.11 Ionic Conductivity 1815.12 The Relationship Between Ionic Conductivity and Diffusion Coefficient 1835.13 Superionic Conductors 1845.13.1 Disordered Cation Compounds 1845.13.2 ß-Alumina Oxides 1855.13.3 Stabilised Zirconia Oxides 1885.13.4 NASICON-Related Crystals 188References 189Further Reading 189Superionic Conductors: See Also References Therein 190Problems and Exercises 190Calculations and Questions 1916 Phase Transformations and Reactions 1956.1 Sintering 1956.1.1 Sintering and Reaction 1956.1.2 The Driving Force for Sintering 1976.1.3 The Kinetics of Neck Growth and Grain Growth 1986.1.4 Rapid Sintering 1986.2 Phase Transitions 1996.2.1 First-Order Phase Transitions 2006.2.2 Second-Order Transitions 2016.3 Displacive and Reconstructive Transitions 2016.3.1 Displacive Transitions 2016.3.2 Reconstructive Transitions 2036.4 Order-Disorder Transitions 2046.4.1 Positional Ordering 2056.4.2 Orientational Ordering 2056.5 Martensitic Transformations 2066.5.1 The Austenite-Martensite Transition 2076.5.2 Martensitic Transformations in Zirconia 2106.5.3 Martensitic Transitions in Ni-Ti Alloys 2116.5.4 Shape-Memory Alloys 2126.6 Phase Diagrams and Microstructures 2146.6.1 Equilibrium Solidification of Simple Binary Alloys 2146.6.2 Non-equilibrium Solidification and Coring 2146.6.3 Solidification in Systems Containing a Eutectic Point 2166.6.4 Equilibrium Heat Treatment of Steel in the Fe-C Phase Diagram 2186.7 High Temperature Oxidation of Metals 2206.7.1 Direct Corrosion 2206.7.2 The Rate of Oxidation 2226.7.3 Oxide Film Microstructure 2226.7.4 Film Growth via Diffusion 2236.7.5 Alloys 2256.8 Solid-State Reactions 2256.8.1 Spinel Formation 2256.8.2 Photoresists 2276.8.3 Mechanochemistry 229Further Reading 230Sintering and 3D Printing 230High Temperature Oxidation and Solid-State Reactions 230For Mechanochemistry See 231Problems and Exercises 231Calculations and Questions 2337 Oxidation and Reduction 2397.1 Galvanic Cells 2397.1.1 Cell Basics 2397.1.2 Standard Electrode Potentials 2417.1.3 Cell Potential, Gibbs Energy, and Concentration Dependence 2437.2 Chemical Analysis Using Galvanic Cells 2437.2.1 pH Meters 2437.2.2 Ion Selective Electrodes 2457.2.3 Oxygen Sensors 2467.3 Batteries 2477.3.1 Primary Batteries 2487.3.1.1 'Dry' and Alkaline Primary Batteries 2487.3.1.2 Lithium-Ion Primary Batteries 2497.3.1.3 Lithium-Air Batteries 2497.3.2 Fuel Cells 2507.3.3 Secondary Batteries 2527.3.3.1 The Lead-Acid Battery 2527.3.3.2 Lithium-Ion Batteries 2537.3.3.3 Dual-Ion Batteries 2547.4 Corrosion 2557.4.1 The Reaction of Metals withWater and Aqueous Acids 2567.4.2 Dissimilar Metal Corrosion 2577.4.3 Single Metal Electrochemical Corrosion 2597.5 Electrolysis 2607.5.1 Electrolytic Cells 2607.5.2 Electroplating 2617.5.3 The Amount of Product Produced During Electrolysis 2627.5.4 The Electrolytic Preparation of Titanium by the FFC Cambridge Process 2637.6 Pourbaix Diagrams 2647.6.1 Passivation, Corrosion, and Leaching 2647.6.2 The Stability Field ofWater 2657.6.3 Pourbaix Diagrams for a Metal Showing Two Valence States 2657.6.4 Pourbaix Diagram Displaying Tendency for Corrosion 268Reference 268Further Reading 269For a General Introduction to Electrochemistry See 269Structure-property Relations and Defects in Electrode and Electrolyte Solids isDescribed in 269Batteries 269Solid Oxide Fuel Cells 269Corrosion 270Electroplating 270Problems and Exercises 270Calculations and Questions 271Part III Physical Properties 2758 Mechanical Properties of Solids 2778.1 Strength and Hardness 2778.1.1 Strength 2778.1.2 Stress and Strain 2788.1.3 Toughness and Stiffness 2808.1.4 Superelasticity 2828.1.5 Hardness 2838.2 Elastic Moduli 2858.2.1 Young's Modulus (The Modulus of Elasticity) (E or Y) 2868.2.2 Poisson's Ratio (nu) 2888.2.3 The Longitudinal or Axial Modulus (L or M) 2898.2.4 The Shear Modulus (G or mu), Bulk Modulus (K or B), and Lamé Modulus (lambda) 2898.2.5 Relationships Between the Elastic Moduli 2908.2.6 UltrasonicWaves in Elastic Solids 2908.3 Deformation and Fracture 2918.3.1 Brittle Fracture 2918.3.2 Plastic Deformation of Metals 2948.3.3 Brittle and Ductile Materials 2978.3.4 Plastic Deformation of Polymers 2998.3.5 Fracture Following Plastic Deformation 2998.3.6 Strengthening 3018.3.7 Computation of Deformation and Fracture 3038.4 Time-Dependent Properties 3048.4.1 Fatigue 3048.4.2 Creep 3058.5 Nanoscale Properties 3098.5.1 Solid Lubricants 3098.5.2 Auxetic Materials 3108.5.3 Thin Films and Nanowires 3128.6 Composite Materials 3158.6.1 Elastic Modulus of Fibre Reinforced Composites 3158.6.2 Elastic Modulus of a Two-Phase System 316Further Reading 318Ductility and Fracture 318Mechanical Properties of Biological Materials 318Hall-Petch Effect 318Computation of Properties 318Finite Element Methods 319Nanoscale Methods 319Composites 319Problems and Exercises 319Calculations and Questions 3219 Insulating Solids 3279.1 Dielectrics 3279.1.1 Relative Permittivity and Polarisation 3279.1.2 Polarisability 3309.1.3 The Relative Permittivity of Crystals 3329.2 Piezoelectrics, Pyroelectrics, and Ferroelectrics 3349.2.1 The Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Effects 3349.2.2 Crystal Symmetry and the Piezoelectric and Pyroelectric Effects 3359.2.3 Piezoelectric Mechanisms 3379.2.4 Quartz Oscillators 3389.2.5 Piezoelectric Polymers and Biomolecular Materials 3399.3 Ferroelectrics 3429.3.1 Ferroelectric and Antiferroelectric Crystals 3439.3.2 Hysteresis and Domain Growth in Ferroelectric Crystals 3459.3.3 The Temperature Dependence of Ferroelectricity and Antiferroelectricity 3479.3.4 Ferroelectricity Due to Hydrogen Bonds 3479.3.5 Ferroelectricity Due to Polar Groups 3499.3.6 Ferroelectricity Due to Medium-Sized Transition-Metal Cations 3509.3.7 Modification of Properties 3529.3.8 Relaxor Ferroelectrics 3549.3.9 Ferroelectric Nanoparticles, Thin Films, and Superlattices 3549.3.10 Flexoelectricity in Ferroelectrics 356Reference 358Flexoelectric Effect 358Further Reading 358General 358Introductory Crystallography with Respect to the Dielectric Properties 358The Dielectric, Piezoelectric and Ferroelectric Properties of Perovskite Structures areDetailed in 358Biomolecular Materials are Described in 358Nanoparticle, Thin Films and Superlattices 358Problems and Exercises 359Calculations and Questions 36010 Magnetic Solids 36510.1 Magnetic Materials 36510.1.1 Characterisation of Magnetic Materials 36510.1.2 Magnetic Dipoles and Magnetic Flux 36610.1.3 Atomic Magnetism 36810.1.4 Overview of Magnetic Materials 36910.2 Paramagnetic Materials 37210.2.1 The Magnetic Moment of Paramagnetic Atoms and Ions 37210.2.2 High and Low Spin: Crystal Field Effects 37310.2.3 Temperature Dependence of Paramagnetic Susceptibility 37610.2.4 Pauli Paramagnetism 37810.3 Ferromagnetic Materials 37910.3.1 Ferromagnetism 37910.3.2 Exchange Energy 38010.3.3 Domains 38210.3.4 Hysteresis 38410.3.5 Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials 38510.4 Antiferromagnetic Materials and Superexchange 38610.5 Ferrimagnetic Materials 38710.5.1 Cubic Spinel Ferrites 38710.5.2 Garnet Structure Ferrites 38810.5.3 Hexagonal Ferrites 38910.5.4 Double Exchange 39010.6 Nanostructures 39110.6.1 Small Particles and Data Recording 39110.6.2 Superparamagnetism and Thin Films 39110.6.3 Perovskite Superlattices 39210.6.4 Photoinduced Magnetism 39310.7 Magnetic Defects 39510.7.1 Magnetic Defects in Semiconductors 39510.7.2 Charge and Spin States in Cobaltites and Manganites 396Further Reading 399General 399Magnetic States 399A Starting Point for the Detection of Magnetic Fields by Animals 400Density Functional Theory Calculations of Magnetic Properties is Outlined by 400Magnetic Superlattices 400A Starting Point for Studies on Photomagnetism 400Problems and Exercises 400Calculations and Questions 40211 Electronic Conductivity in Solids 40511.1 Metals 40511.1.1 Metals, Semiconductors, and Insulators 40511.1.2 Electronic Conductivity 40711.1.3 Resistivity 41011.2 Semiconductors 41111.2.1 Intrinsic Semiconductors 41111.2.2 Band Gap Measurement 41211.2.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors 41311.2.4 Carrier Concentrations in Extrinsic Semiconductors 41511.2.5 Characterisation 41611.2.6 The p-n Junction Diode 41911.3 Metal-Insulator Transitions 42211.3.1 Metals and Insulators 42211.3.2 Electron-Electron Repulsion 42311.3.3 Modification of Insulators 42511.3.4 Transparent Conducting Oxides 42611.4 Conducting Polymers 42711.5 Superconductivity 43111.5.1 Superconductors 43111.5.2 The Effect of Magnetic Fields and Current 43211.5.3 The BCS Theory of Superconductivity 43411.5.4 Josephson Junctions 43511.5.5 Cuprate High Temperature Superconductors 43711.5.5.1 Lanthanum Cuprate, La2CuO4 43711.5.5.2 Neodymium Cuprate, Nd2CuO4 43811.5.5.3 Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide, YBa2Cu3O7 43911.5.5.4 Perovskite-Related Structures and Series 44011.5.6 Bi-layer Graphene 44411.6 Nanostructures and Quantum Confinement of Electrons 445Further Reading 447The Band Theory Definition of a Semiconductor is Due to A.H. Wilson 447Conductivity of (Mainly) Inorganic Solids Due to Defects is Covered In 447The Metal-Insulator Transition in VO2 447Polymers 447Superconductivity 447The Following Articles in Scientific American Give a Good Overview of the Early Yearsof High Temperature Superconductivity 448Graphene Bilayers 448Quantum Hall Effect 448Problems and Exercises 448Calculations and Questions 45012 Optical Aspects of Solids 45512.1 Light 45512.1.1 LightWaves 45512.1.2 Photons 45712.1.3 Colour and Appearance 45912.2 Sources of Light 46012.2.1 Incandescence 46012.2.2 Luminescence 46112.2.3 Fluorescent Lamps 46312.2.4 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 46412.2.5 Organic Light Emitting Devices/Diodes (OLEDs) 46712.2.6 Solid-State Lasers 46912.2.6.1 The Ruby Laser: Three-Level Lasers 47112.2.6.2 The Neodymium (Nd3+) Solid State Laser: Four-Level Lasers 47312.2.6.3 Semiconductor Lasers 47412.3 Refraction 47412.3.1 The Refractive Index 47412.3.2 Refractive Index and Structure 47712.4 Reflection 47712.4.1 Reflection from a Surface 47712.4.2 Reflection from a Transparent Thin Film 47812.4.3 Low-Reflectivity (Antireflection) and High-Reflectivity Coatings 48212.4.4 Multiple Thin Films and Dielectric Mirrors 48312.5 Scattering and Attenuation 48312.5.1 Scattering 48312.5.2 Attenuation 48512.6 Diffraction 48612.6.1 Diffraction by an Aperture 48612.6.2 Diffraction Gratings 48712.6.3 Diffraction from Crystal-like Structures 48812.6.4 Holograms 49012.6.4.1 Hologram Formation 49012.6.4.2 Hologram Recording Media 49212.7 Fibre Optics 49312.7.1 Attenuation in Glass Fibres 49312.7.2 Dispersion and Optical Fibre Design 49412.7.3 Optical Amplification 49612.8 Energy Conversion 49612.8.1 Photoconductivity and Photovoltaic Solar Cells 49612.8.2 Dye-Sensitised Solar Cells 49712.8.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 49912.9 Nanostructures 50112.9.1 The Optical Properties of QuantumWells 50212.9.2 The Optical Properties of Nanoparticles 50212.9.3 Nanoparticle Arrays 504Further Reading 506General 506Much of the Material in this Chapter is Covered in Greater Detail in 506The Properties of Light with Respect to Colour are Found in 506The Engineering Aspects of Optical Fibres are Described by 506Perovskite Solar Cells are Described in 506For Nanostructures and Surfaces See the Following Review Articles and ReferencesTherein 506Problems and Exercises 507Calculations and Questions 50913 Thermal Properties of Solids 51513.1 Heat Capacity 51513.1.1 The Heat Capacity of a Solid 51513.1.2 Theories of Heat Capacity 51513.1.3 Heat Capacity at Phase Transitions 51713.2 Thermal Conductivity 51813.2.1 Heat Transfer 51813.2.2 Thermal Conductivity and Microstructure 52013.3 Expansion and Contraction 52213.3.1 Thermal Expansion 52213.3.2 Thermal Expansion and Interatomic Potentials 52313.3.3 Thermal Contraction 52413.3.4 Zero Thermal Contraction Materials 52613.4 Thermoelectric Effects 52713.4.1 Thermoelectric Coefficients 52713.4.2 Thermoelectric Effects and Charge Carriers 52913.4.3 The Seebeck Coefficient of Solids Containing Point Defect Populations 53013.4.4 Thermocouples, Power Generation, and Refrigeration 53113.5 The Magnetocaloric Effect 53313.5.1 The Magnetocaloric Effect and Adiabatic Cooling 53313.5.2 The Giant Magnetocaloric Effect 53413.6 Thermochromic Effects 53513.6.1 Liquid Crystal Display Thermometers 53513.6.2 Vanadium Dioxide 537References 537Further Reading 538General 538An Interactive Demonstration of the Debye Formula for the Heat Capacity ofSolids Is 538Thermal Conductivity 538Negative and Zero Thermal Expansion 538The Magnetocaloric Effect in Alloys 538Thermoelectric Materials 538Problems and Exercises 539Calculations and Questions 540Part IV Nuclear Properties of Solids 54314 Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions 54514.1 Radioactivity 54514.1.1 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Elements 54514.1.2 Isotopes and Nuclides 54614.1.3 Nuclear Equations 54614.1.4 Radioactive Series 54714.1.4.1 The Uranium Series 54714.1.4.2 The Thorium Series 54814.1.4.3 The Actinium Series 54814.1.4.4 The Neptunium/Plutonium Series 55014.1.5 Nuclear Stability 55014.2 Artificial Radioactive Atoms 55114.2.1 Heavy Elements 55114.2.2 Artificial Radioactivity in Light Elements 55314.3 Nuclear Decay 55414.3.1 The Rate of Nuclear Decay 55414.3.2 Radioactive Dating 55514.4 Nuclear Energy 55714.4.1 The Binding Energy of Nuclides 55714.4.2 Nuclear Fission 55814.4.3 Thermal Reactors for Power Generation 56014.4.4 Fuel for Space Exploration 56114.4.5 Fast Breeder Reactors 56114.4.6 Fusion and Solar Cycles 56214.5 NuclearWaste 56314.5.1 Nuclear Accidents 56314.5.2 The Storage of NuclearWaste 564Further Reading 565The Search for New Heavy Elements 565Radioactive Dating 565Nuclear Reactors 566NuclearWaste 566Problems and Exercises 566Calculations and Questions 568Appendix A 571Appendix B Energy Levels and Terms of Many-Electron Atoms 573B.1 Derivation of Atomic Terms 573B.2 The Ground State Term of an Atom 574B.3 Energy Levels of Many Electron Atoms 575 Index 577
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