Thirst: Physiological and Psychological Aspects

ISBN-13: 9781447118190 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 509 str.

David J. Ramsay; David Booth

Opis

At one time or another, everyone has said "I am thirsty." Yet what causes this sensation of thirst? It is obvious that a certain quantity of fluid must be present for the body to function normally. How does a water deficit in the body then influence drinking habits? But supposing the physiological need is met, what about the psychological need or social need? Water is certainly the most necessary fluid; then why do we humans often prefer other beverages, even at great cost of effort or money or health? The subject of thirst and drinking behavior are uniquely discussed in this book. For the first time both the physiological and the psychological aspects of water and beverage consumption are examined in one volume. The many recent developments concerning how a lack of water is signalled physiologically and processed neurally to affect drinking behavior are critically surveyed. Prospects for understanding the cultural and sensory influences on beverage consumption are mapped out. The thirty-one chapters by authorities in the field were all mutually reviewed and revised in the light of precirculated comments and round-table discussions. Together they provide a complete picture of the current state of knowledge on what determines fluid consumption in human beings and animals.

Spis treści

Section I. Perspectives on Thirst.- 1. Evolution of Physiological and Behavioural Mechanisms in Vertebrate Body Fluid Homeostasis.- Body Fluid Homeostasis.- Homeostatic Adaptations.- Phylogeny of Homeostasis in Vertebrates.- Fish.- Amphibia.- Reptiles.- Birds.- Mammals.- Drinking as a Homeostatic Adaptation.- Two Homeostatic Constants, Osmolality and Extracellular Volume, and the Two Thirsts Resulting When these Deviate from Normal.- Drinking Behaviour in Submammalian Vertebrates.- Drinking Behaviour in Mammals.- Receptors for Thirst Induced by Cellular Dehydration.- Receptors for Thirst Induced by Extracellular Dehydration.- Hormones, Neurotransmitters and Other Humoral Factors in Drinking Behaviour.- Conclusions.- 2. Water: Distribution Between Compartments and its Relationship to Thirst.- Fluid Compartments.- Extracellular and Intracellular Fluid Compartments.- Interstitial and Plasma Compartments.- The Hypothalamus and Thirst.- Regulation of Plasma Osmolality.- Dehydration Natriuresis.- Reduction of Extracellular Fluid Volume.- Interaction of Cellular and Extracellular Dehydration.- Summary.- Commentary.- 3. The Ontogeny of Drinking.- Issues in the Development of Drinking.- The Ontogeny of Ingestive Responses to Dehydration.- Infant Mammals are Highly Vulnerable to Fluid Loss, Yet.- Yet Suckling Behaviour is not Stimulated by Dehydration.- If Drinking Doesn’t Come from Suckling, Where Does it Come From?.- Dehydration Modulates Early Oromotor Responses.- Maturation of Responses to Dehydration Stimuli.- The Normal Emergence of Drinking in Rodents.- Weaning in Other Species.- Opportunities of Ontogenetic Analysis: Behavioural and Neurobiological.- Commentary.- 4. Influences on Human Fluid Consumption.- Scientific Study of Thirsty Behaviour.- Sensations, Signals and Behavioural Neuroscience.- Drinking Behaviour, Thirst Ratings and Fluid Volumes.- Controls of Human Fluid Intake.- Influences on Daily Water Intake.- Temporal Pattern of Drinks.- The Single Drink.- Quantitating Causes of Drinking.- Integration Among Discrete Influences on Drinking.- An Outline Causal System of Thirst.- Sensory Sensitivity of Drinking.- The Tolerance Triangle.- Somatic Sensitivity of Drinking.- Social Sensitivity of Drinking.- Individual Analysis of Sensory and Social Interactions.- Thirst and Hunger.- Fluid Foods not Affecting Eating.- Commonalities of Hunger and Thirst.- Origins of Influences on Human Fluid Consumption.- Learned Preferences for Fluids.- Learned Water-Specific Dietary Selection.- Learned Control of Fluid Intake Volume.- Is Control of Human Fluid Intake Entirely Acquired?.- Summary.- Commentary.- Section II. Physiological Influences on Drinking.- 5. Osmoreceptors for Thirst.- Osmoregulatory Responses.- Cellular Dehydration and Thirst.- Location of the Osmoreceptors.- Osmoreceptors in the Brain.- Sites in the CNS.- Osmoreceptors and/or Sodium Sensors.- Evidence for Sodium Receptors.- Criticisms of the Sodium Receptor Hypothesis.- Summary.- Physiological Significance of Osmoreceptors.- Commentary.- 6. Volume Receptors and the Stimulation of Water Intake.- Integrated Responses to Acute Hypovolaemia.- Restoration of ECF Volume.- Evidence for Reflex Stimulation of Drinking.- Receptors Mediating Reflex Effects on Drinking.- Evidence for Ang II Stimulation of Drinking.- Blockade of the Renin-Angiotensin System and Hypovolaemic Drinking.- Effect of SFO Ablation.- Effect of Nephrectomy on Hypovolaemic Drinking.- Is Either the Reflex or the Ang II Stimulus to Drink Essential?.- Dehydration as a Stimulus to Drinking.- Contribution of Osmotic and Volaemic Factors to Dehydration-Induced Thirst.- Does Ang II Contribute to Dehydration-Induced Drinking?.- Atrial Natriuretic Peptides and Drinking.- Concluding Remarks.- Commentary.- 7. Hormonal Inputs to Thirst.- Hormones: Their Access to the Thirst System and Their Mechanism of Action.- Hormones: General Comments.- Access of the Blood-Borne Hormones to the Thirst System.- Site and Mechanism of Action.- Evidence Suggesting Involvement of a Hormone in the Control of Thirst.- Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS).- Peripheral and Brain Renin-Angiotensin System.- Site and Mechanism of Action.- Regulatory Significance of Dipsogenic Properties of Ang II.- Vasopressin.- Effect of Peripheral and Central VP on Water Intake.- Site and Mechanism of Action.- Physiological and Pathophysiological Significance.- Other Hormones.- Atrial Natriuretic Peptide.- Tachykinins (TCKs).- Oxytocin.- Neuropeptide Y.- Corticotropin Releasing Factor and Pro-opiomelanocortin Derived Peptides. Opioid Peptides.- Other Peptide Hormones.- Steroid Hormones.- Thyroid Hormones.- Summary.- 8. Mineral Appetite: An Overview.- Overview of Mineral Appetite.- Species Differences.- Sodium Appetite is Innate.- The Mechanism of Evocation of Sodium Appetite: General Considerations.- Experiments to Determine the Effect of Changes in Sodium Concentration of Brain ECF and Intracellular Fluid on Sodium Appetite and Thirst.- Renin-Angiotensin System in the Brain.- Commentary.- Section III. Neural Pathways of Water Deficit Signals.- 9. Central Projections of Osmotic and Hypovolaemic Signals in Homeostatic Thirst.- Mechanisms of Afferent Signalling in the Control of Drinking.- The Distribution of Receptors and Nature of Afferent Signalling in the Monitoring of Body Fluid Status.- The Interaction of the Facilitatory and Inhibitory Influences in Deprivation-Induced and Experimental Thirsts.- Mechanisms of Central Integration and Thirst.- The Integrative Role of the SFO/AV3V.- Hindbrain Mechanisms in the Control of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance.- Summary and Conclusions.- 10. Neurochemistry of the Circuitry Subserving Thirst.- The Role of Angiotensin II in the Initiation of Thirst.- Central Angiotensinergic Pathways.- Central Production of Angiotensin II.- Neural Circuits Containing Angiotensin II.- Angiotensin Receptors and Their Involvement in the Circuitry of Thirst.- Correlation of Angiotensin Receptors with Angiotensin-Containing Pathways.- Other Peptides and Monoamines Involved in Thirst.- Catecholamines — Lateral Hypothalamus.- Acetylcholine.- Prostaglandins.- Tachykinins.- Angiotensin Fragments.- Summary.- 11. Central Control of Water and Sodium Chloride Intake in Rats During Hypovolaemia.- Hypovolaemia.- Interaction of Neural and Endocrine Signals.- Integrative Function of Paraventricular Nucleus.- Osmotic Dehydration.- Hypovolaemia.- Stress.- Other Elements in Central Neural Control.- Summary and Conclusions.- Commentary.- 12. Rostro-Sagittal Brain: Site of Integration of Hydrational Signals in Body Fluid Regulation and Drinking.- Evolution of Ideas.- Integration of Neural and Humoral Hydrational Signals.- Electrophysiological Findings on the Integrative Properties of Neurons.- Convergent Systemic and Gustatory Projection of Sodium Chloride Versus Water Stimulations.- Integration of Volaemic, Osmotic and Blood Pressure Signals.- Neuronal Response to Angiotensin II Iontophoretic Application.- Co-action of Angiotensin and Vasopressin on Neuronal Activity.- Neuronal Response to Angiotensin and Na+ Iontophoretic Application: Peculiarity of Neurons Lining the OCPLT.- Evidence for an Undescribed Hollow System, the OCPLT.- Delineation of the OCPLT; the Extent of the Hollow Organ.- Other Anatomical Features of the OCPLT.- Drinking and Renal Effects of Angiotensin II into the OCPLT.- Discussion.- Section IV. Neural Organization of Drinking Behaviour.- 13. Sensory Detection of Water.- Oral Sensory Cues.- Touch.- Temperature.- Taste.- Gastrointestinal Sensory Responses.- Central Neural Pathways.- Commentary.- 14. Neostriatal Mechanisms Affecting Drinking.- Background.- Unilateral DA Deficiency and the Disengage Deficit.- Striatal Unit Activity in Relation to Behaviour.- Neurons Having a Disengage Function?.- Neurons Having an “Ignore” Function?.- Evidence Supporting the “Ignore” Interpretation.- Preliminary Neural Model of Ignore and Disengage Functions.- Conclusion.- Commentary.- 15. Drinking in Mammals: Functional Morphology, Orosensory Modulation and Motor Control.- Anatomy of the Oromotor Apparatus.- Functional Morphology of Drinking Behaviour.- Similarities and Differences in the Functional Morphology of Eating and Drinking.- Orosensory Systems and the Initiation of Drinking.- Topography of Drinking Behaviour and the Invariance Hypothesis.- Orosensory Modulation of Drinking Response Topography.- Conclusions.- 16. Drinking: Hindbrain Sensorimotor Neural Organization.- Ingestive Responses in the Decerebrate.- Brainstem Rhythm Generator.- Reticular Formation Location.- Licking versus Chewing.- Swallowing.- Nucleus of the Solitary Tract.- Interneurons: Medullary Reticular Formation.- Interneurons: Pons.- Motor Nuclei.- Central Representation of Intraoral Receptors.- Nucleus of the Solitary Tract.- Parabrachial Nuclei.- Sensory Trigeminal Complex.- Midbrain Projections.- Conclusions.- Section V. Behavioural Organization of Drinking.- 17. Learning, Thirst and Drinking.- Overview of Learning.- Kinds of Experience.- Consequences of Experience: Measurement and “What is Learned?”.- Associative Learning.- Learning and the Stimulus Properties of Thirst.- Thirst Cues as Elicitors of Behaviour.- Thirst Cues as Reinforcers.- Thirst Cues as Modulators.- Learning and the Control of Drinking by Oral and External Cues.- Recognition, Habituation, and Satiation.- Conditioning.- The Future.- 18. Effects of Eating on Drinking.- The Importance of Food-Related Drinking.- Stimulus Properties of Food.- Pregastric Properties.- Gastric and Intestinal Properties.- Summary.- Dehydrational Consequences of Eating.- Cellular Dehydration.- Extracellular Dehydration and Angiotensin II.- Summary.- Interaction of Stimulus Properties of Food and Postprandial Dehydration.- Learning Processes in Food-Related Drinking.- Learning about Stimulus Properties of Food.- Learning about Dehydrational Consequences of Eating.- Neural Substrates.- Parasympathetic.- Sympathetic.- Brain.- Formulation.- Commentary.- 19. Inhibitory Controls of Drinking: Satiation of Thirst.- Parenteral Factors Inhibiting Fluid Ingestion.- Osmolality.- Extracellular Fluid Volume.- Preabsorptive Factors Influencing Inhibition of Fluid Ingestion.- Oropharyngeal Factors.- Gastrointestinal Factors.- Cognitive Factors.- Integration: Transient Versus Sustained Inhibition of Drinking.- Parallel Effects of Inhibitory Stimuli on Secretion of Hormones Involved in Body Fluid Homeostasis.- Vasopressin.- Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone.- Atrial Natriuretic Peptide.- Oxytocin.- Relation of Central to Peripheral Secretion.- Mechanisms of Drinking Inhibition During Thirst Satiation.- Summary.- Commentary.- 20. Social Influences on Fluid Intake: Laboratory Experiments with Rats, Field Observations of Primates.- In the Laboratory.- Effects of the Presence of Adult Rats at an Ingestion Site.- Effects of Residual Olfactory Cues at an Ingestion Site.- Flavour Cues in the Milk of Rat Dams.- Olfactory Cues on the Breath of Rats.- Socially Induced Aversions.- Competitive Enhancement of Intake.- Summary.- In the Field.- Examples of Locale-Specific Differences in Food Selection by Primates.- Field Observations of Apparent Social Learning about Foods by Primates.- In Conclusion.- Commentary.- Section VI. Determinants of Human Fluid Intake.- 21. Bout Pattern Analysis of Ad Libitum Fluid Intake.- Experimentation vs Observation.- Models and Actual Intakes.- Non-Homeostatic Drinking.- Bout Pattern Analysis.- Causal Analysis of Bout Patterns.- The Diary Self-Report Technique.- Patterns of Fluid Intake in Humans.- Separating Food From Fluid Intake.- Predictors of Fluid Intake.- Human Fluid Intake Results.- Patterns of Fluid Intake in Rats.- Monitoring of Bout Patterns.- Rat Fluid Intake Results.- Bout Nutrient Compositions and Fluid Intake.- Conclusions.- 22. Individual and Cultural Factors in the Consumption of Beverages.- Trends in the Beverage Market.- Cultural Variations.- Consumption over Time.- Sensory Quality of Beverages.- Composition of Beverages.- Serving Temperature.- Consumer Choices Within Beverage Categories.- Traditional and “New” Alternatives.- Soft Drinks.- Milk.- Coffee.- Context of Use.- Consumption at Meals.- Other Context Factors.- Summary and Conclusions.- Commentary.- 23. Alcohol- and Caffeine-Beverage Consumption: Causes Other Than Water Deficit.- The Meaning of Thirst.- The Importance of Other Causes of Drinking.- The Importance of Drug-Containing Beverages in Human Fluid Consumption.- Ways to Cause Rats to Drink Large Amounts of Alcohol or Caffeine Solution.- Breed Them for it.- Rear in an Enriched Environment.- Restrict the Food Supply.- Space the Feeding.- Sweeten the Fluid.- Restrict Food, Space Feeding, and Sweeten Fluid — All Together.- Incorporate Alcohol into a Liquid Diet.- Induce Physical Dependence.- Provide Superior Company.- Administer Other Drugs.- Conclusion.- Causes Of Human Consumption of Drug-Containing Beverages.- Alteration of Mood or Behaviour: The Role of Expectancy.- Dependence and Craving.- Role of Consumption of Other Drugs: Lifestyle Factors.- Genetic Causes.- Palatability.- Schedule-Induced Drinking.- Availability.- Social and Societal Causes.- Advertising and Other Marketing Methods.- Conclusion.- Concluding Remarks.- Commentary.- 24. Environmental and Sensory Modulation of Fluid Intake in Humans.- Water Availability.- Unlimited Access to Water.- Limitations on Water Availability.- Water Temperature.- Flavour and Beverage Variety.- Summary.- 25. Physiological Determinants of Fluid Intake in Humans.- Cellular Stimuli for Drinking.- Extracellular Thirst Stimuli.- Rehydration.- Ad Libitum Drinking.- Conclusions.- Commentary.- Section VII. Variations in Human Fluid Intake.- 26. Thirst and Fluid Intake in the Elderly.- Reduced Thirst with Age.- Effect of Payability.- Possible Mechanisms of the Thirst Deficit.- Satiety and Thirst in the Elderly.- Conclusions.- Commentary.- 27. The Consequences of Exercise on Thirst and Fluid Intake.- Fluid Deficits and Electrolyte Balance.- Combined Stress Factors.- Thresholds for Involuntary Dehydration.- Sodium-Osmotic Hypothesis.- Free Circulating Water.- Physical Fitness.- Gastrointestinal Factors.- Body Temperature.- Fluid Shifts.- Summary.- 28. Effects of Environmental Stresses and Privations on Thirst.- Dehydration-Induced Drinking.- Effect of Certain Pharmacological Agents on Dehydration-Induced Drinking.- Effect of Water Temperature on Dehydration-Induced Drinking.- Heat-Induced Drinking.- Effect of Certain Pharmacological Agents on Heat-Induced Drinking.- Thermogenic (Post-Cold Exposure) Drinking.- Effect of Exposure to Cold on Food and Water Intake.- Effect of Certain Pharmacological Agents on Thermogenic Drinking.- Effect of Water Temperature on Thermogenic Drinking.- Post-Hypoxic Drinking.- Effect of Certain Pharmacological Agents on Post-Hypoxic Drinking.- Summary.- 29. Effect of Changes in Reproductive Status on Fluid Intake and Thirst.- Menstrual Cycle.- Normal Individuals.- Cyclical Oedema.- Pregnancy.- Lactation.- Postmenopause.- Summary.- Commentary.- 30. Disorders of Thirst in Man.- Water Balance.- Definition of Terms.- Thirst Independent Influences on Fluid Intake.- Measurement of Thirst.- Physiology.- Osmoregulation of Thirst.- Relationship to Osmoregulation of Vasopressin.- Hypothetical Model of Osmoregulatory System.- Relation Between Thirst and Fluid Intake.- Integration of Thirst and Antidiuretic Mechanisms.- Pathophysiology.- Hypodipsia.- Polydipsia.- Conclusions.- Commentary.- Section VIII. A Concluding View.- 31. Thirst and Salt Intake: A Personal Review and Some Suggestions.- The Nature of Thirst in Mammals and Man.- The Biological Diversity of Thirst.- Biological Diversity Within Species.- Development and Diversity.- Sex Differences.- The Several States of Thirst.- Angiotensin as a Hormone of Thirst.- Antidipsogens.- The Neural Substrates of Thirst.- Spontaneous or Freely Emitted Drinking Behaviour.- The Ontogeny of Thirst, Especially in Mammals.- Salt Intake.- Salt Appetite.- Additional Aspects of the Hormonal Synergy.- Need-Free Salt Intake.