Technological Advances in Improved and Alternative Sources of Lipids

ISBN-13: 9781461358787 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 397 str.

B. S. Kamel; B. S. Kamel

Opis

Lipids are very important both as components of human nutrition and in applications such as the chemical, cosmetics and food industries. At present the world oil supply depends on conventional sources and changes in the political and economical map of the world may mean consumer demand will surpass supplies. In developed nations consumer preferences due to nutrition and health factors have also created a need to produce new types of oil. Many nations lack the power to purchase fats, and oil due to shortages in hard currency. These nations have a vast number of plants that can be developed and used in extracting oil for home use and for sale as cash crops. Also, a vast amount of waste from food processing, such as tomatoes, peaches, plums and grapes, can be utilized to extract valuable amounts of usable oil. Biotechnology, genetic engineering, enzyme tech nologies and new processes are all being utilized in lipids research to develop new and modified types of oil for different applications; such developments include the high oleic acid, sunflower and rapeseed oils. The development of cocoa butter substitute is another example. This highly practical book reviews the methods of improving oil charac teristics from existing sources, and the technology and economics of developing under-utilized sources. It is written for lipid chemists, chemical engineers, food technologists, cosmetologists and nutritionists. Graduate and undergraduate students will find value in the data. B.S.K."

Spis treści

1 Present and future outlook of the world fats and oil supplies.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Composition of oils and fats.- 1.3 Availability of oils and fats.- 1.4 Applications of oils and fats.- 1.5 Newer developments within oils and fats.- 1.6 Global trends in production, consumption and trade of fats and oils.- 1.7 Pricing policies.- 1.8 Other developments.- 1.9 World demand and supply situation.- 1.10 Concluding remarks.- References.- 2 Nutritional aspects of fats and oils.- 2.1 Introduction.- 2.2 Cholesterol.- 2.2.1 Structure and function.- 2.2.2 Sources of cholesterol.- 2.2.3 Digestion, absorption and transport in the blood.- 2.2.4 Role of plasma cholesterol in atherosclerosis.- 2.2.5 Dietary cholesterol, atherosclerosis and plasma cholesterol.- 2.2.6 Dietary recommendations.- 2.3 Saturated, mono-unsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids.- 2.3.1 Structure and function.- 2.3.2 Sources of fatty acids.- 2.3.3 Digestion, absorption and transport in the blood.- 2.3.4 Role of various types of fatty acids and total fat in disease.- 2.3.5 Dietary recommendations.- 2.4 ?-6 and ?-3 essential fatty acids.- 2.4.1 Structure and sources.- 2.4.2 Deficiency symptoms.- 2.4.3 Recommended intakes of essential fatty acids to prevent deficiency.- 2.5 Roles of ?-6 and ?-3 fatty acids in nutrition and disease.- 2.5.1 Nutrition.- 2.5.2 Disease.- 2.6 Phospholipids and lecithin.- 2.6.1 Structure and functions.- 2.6.2 Functions and commercial uses of lecithin.- 2.7 Medium-chain triglycerides.- 2.7.1 Structure and sources.- 2.7.2 Digestion and absorption.- 2.7.3 Importance of medium-chain trigylcerides.- 2.8 Fat substitutes.- 2.8.1 Benefit of fat substitutes.- 2.8.2 Safety considerations.- 2.8.3 Types of fat substitutes.- 2.9 Trans fatty acids.- 2.9.1 Origins, intake levels and food sources.- 2.9.2 Effects on health and disease risk.- 2.9.3 Food labelling and regulatory policies.- 2.10 Future developments.- References.- 3 Biotechnological advances in improved and alternative sources of lipids.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Techniques of biotechnology and genetic engineering.- 3.2.1 Plant selection.- 3.2.2 Genetic engineering.- 3.3 Enzyme systems for fatty acid and oil synthesis.- 3.3.1 Glycolytic enzymes.- 3.3.2 De novo fatty acid synthesis.- 3.3.3 Glycerolipid synthesis.- 3.4 Oil body proteins.- 3.5 Commentary.- References.- 4 Edible oils from herbaceous crops.- 4.1 Typical compositions of oilseed unselected for lipid composition.- 4.2 Genetic alteration of oilseed composition.- 4.2.1 Oil percentage.- 4.2.2 Fatty acid composition.- 4.2.3 Other goals of plant breeding in oilseed crops.- 4.3 The introduction of new oilseed crops and crops with special characteristics.- 4.4 Potential herbaceous edible oilseed crops.- 4.4.1 Cuphea.- 4.4.2 Apiaceae.- 4.4.3 Evening primrose (Oenothea).- 4.4.4 Salicornia bigelovii Torr.- 4.4.5 Madia sativa and Iva annua.- 4.4.6 Lupine.- References.- 5 Tropical fruits: a source of lipids.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Potential sources of fats and oils.- 5.3 Important sources of lipid.- 5.3.1 Mango.- 5.3.2 Papaya.- 5.3.3 Avocado.- 5.3.4 Buffalo gourd.- 5.3.5 Okra.- 5.3.6 Passion fruit.- 5.3.7 Tamarind.- 5.3.8 Guava.- 5.3.9 Durian.- 5.3.10 Breadfruit.- 5.3.11 Jackfruit.- 5.4 Commercial and village processing.- 5.5 Toxicology.- References.- 6 Nuts as a source of edible oil.- 6.1 Types and geographical location of production.- 6.1.1 World production and consumption of tree nuts.- 6.1.2 World production of nuts and seeds.- 6.2 Economic feasibility.- 6.2.1 Ammonia damaged pecans.- 6.2.2 Moldy nuts.- 6.2.3 Wormy cashew nuts.- 6.3 Composition and characteristics and comparison to common oils.- 6.3.1 Stability.- 6.3.2 Labeling.- 6.3.3 Fatty acid composition of tree nut oils.- 6.4 Use of gourmet oils in confections and cosmetics.- 6.5 Nutritive value.- 6.6 General methods of processing and refining.- 6.6.1 Dehulling.- 6.6.2 Shelling.- 6.6.3 Recovering nut oil.- 6.6.4 Roasting.- 6.6.5 Nut butters and pastes.- 6.6.6 Oil refining.- 6.6.7 Debittering.- 6.6.8 Deodorizing.- 6.6.9 Hydrogenation.- 6.6.10 Dewaxing.- 6.6.11 Margarine stock.- 6.7 Utilization of cake for feed.- 6.8 Trends in the nut industry.- 6.9 The future.- 6.10 Exports and imports.- 6.10.1 Nut storage.- References.- 7 Fruit and vegetable by-products as sources of oil.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Citrus seed.- 7.3 Cucurbit seed.- 7.4 Currant seed.- 7.4.1 Red currants.- 7.4.2 Black currants.- 7.4.3 Gooseberry.- 7.5 Grape seed.- 7.5.1 Agronomic statistics.- 7.5.2 Physical constants for oil.- 7.5.3 Oil composition.- 7.5.4 Other useful products obtained in oil recovery.- 7.6 Olive cake.- 7.6.1 Olive oil categories.- 7.7 Pome fruit.- 7.7.1 Apple seed (Malus sylvestris).- 7.7.2 Star apple (Crysophyllum albidum).- 7.7.3 Pear (Pyrus communis).- 7.7.4 Quince (Cydonia vulgaris).- 7.8 Stone fruits.- 7.8.1 Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.).- 7.8.2 Peach (Prunus persica Sieb).- 7.8.3 Plum (Prunus domestica L.).- 7.8.4 Cherry.- 7.9 Rice bran.- 7.10 Tea seed.- 7.11 Tomato seed.- 7.11.1 Oil composition.- 7.11.2 Other useful products obtained in oil recovery.- 7.11.3 Economic feasibility for processing and utilization.- 7.12 Other seeds.- 7.12.1 Camellia seeds.- 7.12.2 Date seed.- 7.12.3 Red pepper.- 7.13 Summary.- References.- 8 Oils from under-utilised palm and forest products.- 8.1 Palms.- 8.1.1 The African oil palm, Elaeis guineensis.- 8.1.2 Coconut palm, Cocoa nucifera.- 8.2 Traditional processing.- 8.3 Nutritional properties of palm oil.- 8.4 Under-utilised palms.- 8.4.1 Acrocomia.- 8.4.2 Astrocaryum species.- 8.4.3 Attalea colenda.- 8.4.4 Bactris gasipaes.- 8.4.5 Jessenia bataua.- 8.4.6 Jubaea spectabilis.- 8.4.7 Mauritia vinifera.- 8.4.8 Mauritia flexuosa.- 8.4.9 Maximiliana regia.- 8.4.10 The babassu palm (Orbygnia species).- 8.5 Under-utilised sources of edible oil from trees.- 8.5.1 Argania.- 8.5.2 Caryocar species.- 8.5.3 Caryodendron orinocense.- 8.5 .4 Moringa species.- 8.5.5 Pentaclethra species.- 8.6 Discussion.- References.- 9 Yeasts, moulds, algae and bacteria as sources of Upids.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.1.1 General background to microbial lipids.- 9.1.2 Development of the concept of microorganisms as sources of lipids.- 9.2 Process of microbial oil accumulation.- 9.2.1 Physiological aspects.- 9.2.2 Biochemistry of lipid accumulation.- 9.3 Yeasts.- 9.3.1 General aspects.- 9.3.2 Yeast oil as a cocoa butter equivalent.- 9.3.3 Other yeast fatty acids.- 9.4 Moulds.- 9.4.1 ?-Linolenic acid.- 9.4.2 Dihomo-?-linolenic acid.- 9.4.3 5,8,1l-cis-Eicosatrienoic acid ('Mead acid').- 9.4.4 Arachidonic acid.- 9.4.5 Eicosapentaenoic acid.- 9.4.6 Docosahexaenoic acid.- 9.4.7 Conclusions.- 9.5 Algae.- 9.5.1 ?-Linolenic acid.- 9.5.2 Arachidonic acid.- 9.5.3 Eicosapentaenoic acid.- 9.5.4 Docosahexaenoic acid.- 9.5.5 Conclusions.- 9.6 Bacteria.- 9.7 Acceptability and economic considerations.- References.- 10 Animal and marine Upids.- 10.1 Animal lipids.- 10.1.1 Lard.- 10.1.2 Tallow and butter.- 10.1.3 Trans acids.- 10.1.4 Poultry lipids and greases.- 10.2 Marine lipids.- 10.2.1 Triglyceride oils.- 10.2.2 Wax ester oils.- 10.2.3 Marine mammals.- 10.2.4 Shark and other fish liver oils.- 10.2.5 Production and refining of marine oils.- 10.2.6 Health aspects of marine lipids.- Acknowledgments.- References.- 11 Treatment, oxidation and health aspects of fats and oils.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Oxidation of fats and oils.- 11.2.1 Autoxidation.- 11.2.2 Thermal oxidation.- 11.2.3 Enzymatic oxidation.- 11.2.4 Photo-oxidation.- 11.3 Health effects of oxidized fats and oils.- 11.3.1 Whole oxidized fats/oils.- 11.3.2 Fatty acid hydroperoxides.- 11.3.3 Secondary products.- 11.3.4 Metabolic fate of hydroperoxides and secondary products.- 11.4 Regeneration of used oil.- 11.4.1 Introduction.- 11.4.2 Techniques that have been used for oil cleaning and regeneration.- 11.5 Summary and conclusion.- References.- 12 Enzymes in lipid technology and cocoa butter substitutes.- 12.1 Introduction.- 12.2 Oil extraction.- 12.2.1 Enzyme-assisted full pressing process.- 12.2.2 Enzyme-enhanced solvent extraction.- 12.2.3 Enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction.- 12.3 Production of lipids and oleochemical compounds.- 12.3.1 Production of free fatty acid.- 12.3.2 Production of monoacylglycerols.- 12.3.3 Diacylglycerol production processes.- 12.3.4 Production of triacylglycerols.- 12.3.5 Other enzymes: mediated processes.- 12.4 Enzyme-derived flavours from lipids.- 12.5 Enzymatic trans- and interesterification processes.- 12.6 Cocoa butter substitutes and equivalents.- 12.6.1 Characteristics of cocoa butter.- 12.6.2 Manufacturing processes for cocoa butter substitutes.- 12.7 Future developments of enzymes in lipid technology.- 12.8 Conclusion.- References.