Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization

ISBN-13: 9781461357117 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 532 str.

Keshun Liu

Opis

The soybean Glycine max (L. ) Merrill], a native of China, is one of the oldest crops of the Far East. For centuries, the Chinese and other Oriental people, including Japanese, Korean, and Southeast Asians, have used the bean in various forms as one of the most important sources of dietary protein and oil. For this reason and because the amount of protein produced by soybeans per unit area of land is higher than that of any other crop, this little old bean has been called "yellow jewel," "great treasure," "nature's miracle protein," and "meat of the field. " Now this bean is seen by some as a weapon against world hunger and a protein of the future. Most recently, the soybean has been touted as a possible weapon against chronic diseases. Since large-scale introduction to the Western world at the beginning of the twentieth century, the cultivation and use of soybeans have undergone a dramatic revolution: from traditional soyfoods in the Orient to a new generation of soyfoods in the West, from animal feed to value-added food protein ingredients, from industrial paints to affordable table oils and spreads, from an old field crop to a new crop with wide regions of adoptability, herbicide tolerance, pest resistance, and/or altered chemical composition, and from limited regional cultivation to expanded worldwide production.

Spis treści

1. Argonomic Characteristics, Production, and Marketing.- I. Origin.- II. Early History in Europe.- III. Early History in North America.- IV. Agronomic Characteristics.- A. Seed Morphology.- B. Germination and Seedling Development.- C. Growing Stages and Maturity Groups.- D. Seed Development.- E. Nitrogen Fixation.- F. Diseases and Pests.- V. Harvesting, Drying, and Storage.- A. Harvesting.- B. Drying.- C. Storage.- VI. Marketing and Trading.- VII. Grades, Standards, and Inspection.- VII. Variety Identification.- IX. Food Beans and Oil Beans.- References.- 2. Chemistry and Nutritional Value of Soybean Components.- I. Proximate Composition.- II. Lipids.- A. Triglycerides.- 1. Fatty Acid Composition.- 2. Geometric Configuration.- 3. Positional Distribution.- B. Phospholipids.- C. Nutritional Value of Soybean Oil.- 1. Essential Fatty Acids.- 2. Health Implications of Individual Fatty Acids.- 3. Health Implications of trans Fatty Acids.- III. Proteins.- A. Protein Classification and Nomenclature.- B. Isolation of Major Storage Proteins.- 1. Protein Bodies.- 2. Isolation Procedures.- C. Characterization of Major Storage Proteins.- 1. ?-Conglycinin (7S Globulin).- 2. Glycinin (11 S Fraction).- 3. Differences between 7S and 11S Globulins.- D. Trypsin Inhibitors.- 1. Types of Inhibitors in Soybeans.- 2. Health Implications.- 3. Elimination.- 4. Assay Methodology.- E. Lectin.- F. Lipoxygenases.- 1. Occurrences.- 2. Oxidative Reaction and Off-Flavor Formation.- 3. Other Features.- 4. Elimination.- 5. Assay Methods.- G. Nutritional Quality of Soy Protein.- 1. Amino Acid Requirements for Humans and Animals.- 2. Amino Acid Composition of Soy Protein.- 3. Protein Digestibility.- 4. Methods for Assaying Protein Quality.- 5. Hypocholesterolemic Effects of Soy Protein.- 6. Allergenicity of Soy Protein.- IV. Carbohydrates.- A. Soluble Carbohydrates.- B. Insoluble Carbohydrates.- V. Minor Components.- A. Minerals.- B. Vitamins.- C. Phytate.- 1. Occurrence.- 2. Nutritional Implications.- 3. Effects on Cooking Quality.- 4. Elimination.- 5. Assay Methods.- D. Isoflavones.- 1. Occurrences.- 2. Effects of Processing.- 3. Physiological Effects on Humans and Animals.- 4. Assay Methods.- VI. Soy Hulls.- VII. Hypocotyl Axis.- References.- 3. Biological and Compositional Changes during Soybean Maturation, Storage, and Germination.- I. Changes during Soybean Maturation.- A. Dry Matter and Proximate Composition.- B. Fatty Acid Composition.- C. Vitamins.- D. Biologically Active Components.- E. Food Values of Immature Soybeans.- II. Biological Aging during Soybean Storage.- A. Storage-Induced Protein Changes.- B. Other Changes.- C. Effects on Quality of Soy Products.- D. Mechanisms of Biological Aging.- E. Prevention of Storage-Induced Quality Loss.- III. Changes during Soybean Germination.- A. Dry Matter and Proximate Composition.- B. Fatty Acid Composition.- C. Amino Acid Composition.- D. Vitamins.- E. Biologically Active Components.- F. Food Values of Germinated Soybeans.- References.- 4. Nonfermented Oriental Soyfoods.- I. Soymilk.- A. Traditional Soymilk Preparation Methods.- B. Chemistry of Beany Flavors.- C. Modern Soymilk Preparation Methods.- 1. Cornell Method.- 2. Illinois Method.- 3. Rapid Hydration Hydrothermal Cooking.- 4. Methods Using Defatted Soy Material.- 5. Deodorization Techniques.- 6. Commercial Methods.- 7. Novel Approaches.- D. Basic Steps and Principles of Soymilk Preparation.- 1. Starting Material.- 2. Water Incorporation.- 3. Grinding.- 4. Soymilk Extraction.- 5. Heat Treatment.- 6. Formulation and Fortification.- 7. Final Processing and Packaging.- 8. Additional Processing.- E. Other Constraints.- 1. Objectionable Aftertaste.- 2. Chalkiness.- 3. Yields.- F. Standardization of Soymilk.- II. Tofu.- A. Tofu Preparation Methods.- 1. Traditional Methods.- 2. Variations in Tofu Preparation Methods.- B. Tofu Varieties.- C. Quality and Quantity Attributes of Tofu.- D. Factors Affecting Tofu Making.- 1. Soybean Varieties and Compositions.- 2. Temperature of Grinding Soybeans.- 3. Concentration of Soymilk.- 4. Heat Processing of Soymilk and Tofu Gelation Mechanism.- 5. Types of Coagulants.- 6. Concentration of Coagulants.- 7. Coagulation Temperature.- 8. Mode of Adding Coagulants.- 9. Coagulation Time.- 10. Molding Conditions.- 11. Other Factors.- 12. Tofu Made from Full-Fat Soy Flakes.- 13. Novel Treatments.- E. Microbiological Safety.- III. Yuba.- A. Preparation.- B. Chemical Composition.- C. Varieties.- D. Utilization.- E. Mechanism of Film Formation.- F. Conditions for Film Formation and Their Optimization.- IV. Other Nonfermented Soyfoods.- A. Soybean Sprouts.- B. Okara.- C. Roasted Soybeans, Soynuts, and Soy Flour.- D. Cooked Whole Soybeans.- E. Immature Soybeans.- References.- 5. Fermented Oriental Soyfoods.- I. Fermented Soy Paste (Jiang and Miso).- A. Varieties of Miso and Jiang.- B. Koji and Microorganisms Involved.- C. Koji Starter and Its Preparation.- D. Chinese Jiang Preparation.- 1. Traditional Household Method.- 2. Pure Culture Method.- 3. Enzymatic Method.- E. Japanese Miso Preparation.- 1. Rice Koji Preparation.- 2. Treatment of Soybeans.- 3. Mixing and Mashing.- 4. Fermentation.- 5. Pasteurization and Packaging.- F. Principles of Jiang and Miso Preparations.- G. Major Factors in Jiang and Miso Making.- 1. Raw Materials.- 2. Cooking Temperature and Time.- 3. Conditions during Koji Preparation.- 4. Proportions of Ingredients.- 5. Fermentation Conditions.- 6. Novel Processing for Special Products.- II. Soy Sauce (Jiangyou or Shoyu).- A. Varieties of Soy Sauce.- B. Soy Sauce Processing.- 1. Traditional Chinese Household Method.- 2. Modern Chinese Method.- 3. Processing of Japanese Shoyu.- 4. Comparison of Soy Sauce and Jiang or Miso Preparations.- C. Principles of Making Soy Sauce.- 1. Action of Koji Enzymes.- 2. Fermentation by Lactic Bacteria and Yeasts.- 3. Color and Flavor Formation.- 4. Glutaminase and Glutamic Acid.- D. Chemical Soy Sauce.- E. Progress in Soy Sauce Preparation.- 1. Use of Defatted Soy Grits or Flakes.- 2. Improvements in Treating Soybeans.- 3. Development of an Automatic Koji-Making System.- 4. Application of Microorganisms with Specific Activities.- 5. Techniques to Shorten Production Time.- 6. Improvements in Soy Sauce Clarification.- F. Chemical Composition, Quality Attributes, and Standardization.- G. Mycotoxins.- III. Tempeh.- A. Varieties of Tempeh.- B. Preparation.- 1. Traditional Method.- 2. Pilot Plant Method.- 3. Petri Dish Method.- C. Microorganisms Involved.- D. Factors Affecting Tempeh Fermentation.- 1. Starter.- 2. Dehulling and Aeration.- 3. Moisture.- 4. Temperatures.- 5. Acidity.- 6. Losses of Solids.- E. Changes during Fermentation.- 1. General Changes.- 2. Protein.- 3. Lipid.- 4. Carbohydrates and Other Constituents.- F. Production of Vitamins.- G. Storage.- H. Nutritional Value.- IV. Natto.- A. Preparation.- B. Microorganisms Involved.- C. Factors Affecting Natto Quality.- 1. Raw Material.- 2. Soybean Cooking Conditions.- 3. Storage.- D. Changes during Fermentation.- E. Trends in Research on Natto and B. natto.- 1. Development of Novel Strains of B. subtilis.- 2. Purification and Characterization of Key Enzymes.- 3. Studies into Genes Encoding Key Enzymes of B. subtilis.- 4. Studies of Possible Physiological Roles of Natto.- V. Soy Nuggets (Douchi or Hamanatto).- VI. Sufu.- A. Preparation.- B. Types of Sufu.- C. Microorganisms Involved.- D. Effect of Mold Growth.- E. Effect of Brine Aging.- References.- 6. Soybean Oil Extraction and Processing Andrew Proctor.- I. Preparation before Extraction.- A. Cleaning.- B. Drying.- C. Cracking and Debulling.- D. Conditioning.- E. Flaking.- F. Innovations in Preextraction Technology.- II. Solvent Extraction.- A. Solvents.- B. Extraction Theory.- C. Extraction Equipment.- D. Miscella Stripping.- E. Desolventizing Soymeal.- F. Storing and Handling Crude Soy Oil.- III. Mechanical Extraction.- IV. Oil Refining.- A. Degumming.- B. Neutralization.- 1. Alkali Refining.- 2. Zenith Refining System.- 3. Physical Steam Refining.- 4. Miscella Refining.- C. Bleaching.- 1. Adsorption Theory.- 2. Bleaching Procedure.- 3. Effects of Adsorbents.- 4. Effect of Bleaching Conditions.- 5. Innovations in Bleaching.- D. Deodorization.- 1. Deodorization Theory.- 2. Deodorization Procedures.- V. Optional Additional Processing.- A. Hydrogenation.- 1. The Hydrogenation Reaction.- 2. Selectivity.- 3. Positional Isomers.- 4. Geometrical Isomers.- 5. Hydrogenation Catalysts.- 6. Hydrogenation Equipment.- B. lnteresterification.- 1. Chemical Interesterification.- 2. Directed Interesterification.- 3. Enzymatic Interesterification.- C. Winterization.- D. Fractionation.- VI. Lecithin Processing.- VII. Plant and Environmental Safety.- A. Plant Safety.- B. Environmental Safety.- 1. Wastewater Control.- 2. Solid Waste Disposal.- 3. Air Pollution Control.- References.- 7. Properties and Edible Applications of Soybean Oil.- I. General Properties of Soybean Oil.- A. Refractive Index.- B. Iodine Value.- C. Smoke, Flash, and Fire Points.- D. Melting Point.- E. Polymorphism.- F. Measuring Crystallization Behavior.- 1. Principles of Measurements.- 2. Solid Fat Index.- 3. NMR Method.- 4. DSC Method.- II. Lipid Oxidation.- A. Mechanisms.- B. Flavor Reversion of Soybean Oil.- C. Measuring Lipid Oxidation.- 1. Analytical Methods.- 2. Accelerated Testing.- 3. Sensory Evaluations.- D. Controlling Lipid Oxidation.- III. Various Types of Soybean Oil.- IV. Edible Applications of Soybean Oil.- A. Salad and Cooking Oils.- B. Shortenings (Baking and Frying Oils).- 1. Plastic Shortenings.- 2. Powdered Shortenings.- 3. Pourable Shortenings.- 4. Frying Shortenings.- C. Margarines.- D. Mayonnaise and Salad Dressing.- E. Emulsifiers.- F. Other Applications.- V. Utilization of Soy Lecithin.- References.- 8. Soybean Protein Products Navam Hettiarachchy and Uruthira Kalapathy.- I. A Brief History of Soy Protein Products.- II. Types of Soy Protein Products and Processing.- A. Defatted Soy Flakes and Meal.- 1. Desolventizing and Toasting Soy Meals for Feed.- 2. Desolventizing and Deodorizing Soy Flakes for Food.- B. Defatted Soy Grits and Flour.- C. Soy Protein Concentrates.- 1. Aqueous Alcohol Extraction.- 2. Acid-Leaching Process.- 3. Moist-Heat-Water-Leaching Process.- D. Soy Protein Isolates.- 1. A Commercial Process.- 2. Separation by Molecular Weight.- 3. Membrane Processing.- 4. Aqueous Extraction.- 5. Salt Extraction.- 6. Separation of Intact Protein Bodies.- E. Toasted Full-Fat Soy Flour.- F. Enzyme Active Full-Fat Soy Flour.- G. Textured Soy Protein Products.- H. Chemical Composition of Soy Protein Products.- III. Nutritional Quality of Soy Protein.- A. Amino Acid Composition.- B. Protein Digestibility.- IV. Soy Protein as a Functional Ingredient.- A. Structure of Proteins.- B. Functional Properties.- 1. Solubility.- 2. Emulsification.- 3. Foaming Properties.- 4. Gelation.- 5. Water-Binding Capacity.- 6. Water-Holding Capacity.- C. Organoleptic Properties.- D. Other Properties.- V. Modification of Soy Proteins.- A. Physical Methods.- B. Chemical Methods.- C. Enzymatic Methods.- VI. Applications of Soy Protein Products.- A. Applications in Traditional Food Products.- 1. Meat Extenders and Analogs.- 2. Bakery Products.- 3. Dairy Products and Dairy Analogs.- 4. Other Products.- B. Edible Films and Coatings.- C. Industrial Uses.- D. Nutraceutical Applications.- VII. Challenges and Future Research.- References.- 9. The Second Generation of Soyfoods.- I. Dairy Analogs.- A. Frozen Soy Desserts.- 1. Soy Ice Cream.- 2. Frozen Soy Yogurt.- B. Lactic Acid Fermented Soy Products.- 1. Lactic Fermentation on Soyinilk.- 2. Soy Yogurt.- 3. Soy Cheese.- C. Engineered Soy Cheese.- II. Meat Analogs.- A. The Markets.- B. Varieties.- C. Nutritional Consideration.- D. Taste.- E. Choice of Soy Protein Ingredients.- F. Prospects.- III. Protein Texturization.- A. Fiber Spinning.- B. Thermoplastic Extrusion.- C. Direct Steam Texturization.- D. Shaping and Heating.- E. Enzymatic Texturization.- F. Salt Coagulation (Tofu Making).- IV. Tofu-Based Foods and Ingredients.- References.- 10. Soyfoods: Their Role in Disease Prevention and Treatment.- I. Diet, Health, and Soyfoods.- II. Macronutrients in Soybeans.- A. Protein.- B. Fat.- III. Soy Isoflavones.- A. Isomer Structure and Occurrences.- B. Absorption and Metabolism.- C. Estrogenic/Antiestrogenic Activity.- IV. Soy Intake and Cancer Risk.- A. Genistein as an Anticarcinogen.- B. Breast Cancer.- C. Prostate Cancer.- D. Cancer Treatment.- V. Soy Intake and Osteoporosis.- A. Protein, Soy Protein, and Bone Health.- B. Isoflavones and Bone Health.- VI. Soy Intake and Kidney Disease.- VII. Soy Intake and Heart Disease.- A. Serum Cholesterol-Lowering Effect.- B. Role of Isoflavones.- VIII. Soy Intake and Menopause.- IX. Potential Concerns Related to Soy Consumption.- A. Oligosaccharides.- B. Phytate.- C. Saponins.- D. Trypsin Inhibitors.- E. Isoflavones.- X. Summary.- References.- 11. Soybean Improvements through Plant Breeding and Genetic Engineering.- I. The Breeding Process.- A. Strategic Planning.- B. Germplasm Evaluation.- C. Genetic Studies.- D. Variety Development and Release.- II. Breeding Methods.- A. Recurrent Selection.- B. Crossing.- C. Mutation Breeding (Mutagenesis).- D. Molecular Markers.- E. Biotechnological Approach.- 1. Techniques.- 2. Advantages and Disadvantages.- 3. Prospects.- III. Breeding to Increase Crop Productivity.- A. Herbicide-Tolerant Crops.- B. Insect-Resistant Crops.- IV. Breeding for Food-Grade Soybeans.- V. Breeding to Increase Protein and Oil Content.- A. Soybeans with High Protein Content.- B. Soybeans with High Oil Content.- C. Soybeans with Both High Protein and High Oil.- VI. Breeding to Improve Oil Quality.- A. The Need for Oil Quality Enhancement.- B. Challenges to Resolve Conflicts within a Quality Triangle of Edible Oils.- C. Current Trends in Oilseed Breeding.- D. Progress in Altering Soybean Oil Composition.- 1. Low Linolenic Soybeans.- 2. High Oleic Soybeans.- 3. Low Palmitic Soybeans.- 4. High Saturate Soybeans.- VII. Breeding to Improve Protein Quality.- A. Changing 11S/7S Ratio.- B. Increasing Essential Amino Acids.- C. Eliminating Trypsin Inhibitors.- D. Reducing Oligosaccharides.- E. Reducing Phytates.- F. Increasing Isoflavones.- VIII. Breeding to Control Beany Flavor.- References.