Smart Solar Pv Inverters with Advanced Grid Support Functionalities

ISBN-13: 9781119214182 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 512 str.

Rajiv K. Varma

Spis treści

About the Author xxiiiForeword xxvPreface xxviiAcknowledgments xxxiList of Abbreviations xxxiii1 Impacts of High Penetration of Solar PV Systems and Smart Inverter Developments 11.1 Concepts of Reactive and Active Power Control 11.1.1 Reactive Power Control 11.1.1.1 Voltage Control 11.1.1.2 Frequency Control 31.1.2 Active Power Control 41.1.2.1 Voltage Control 41.1.2.2 Frequency Control 51.1.3 Frequency Response with Synchronous Machines 51.1.3.1 Rate of Change of Frequency 61.1.3.2 Factors Impacting ROCOF 71.1.3.3 System Inertia 71.1.3.4 Critical Inertia 81.1.3.5 Size of Largest Contingency 81.1.4 Fast Frequency Response 81.2 Challenges of High Penetration of Solar PV Systems 101.2.1 Steady-state Overvoltage 101.2.2 Voltage Fluctuations 111.2.3 Reverse Power Flow 111.2.4 Transient Overvoltage 131.2.5 Voltage Unbalance 141.2.6 Decrease in Voltage Support Capability of Power Systems 141.2.7 Interaction with Conventional Voltage Regulation Equipment 151.2.8 Variability of Power Output 151.2.9 Balancing Supply and Demand 151.2.10 Changes in Active Power Flow in Feeders 161.2.11 Change in Reactive Power Flow in Feeders 171.2.12 Line Losses 171.2.13 Harmonic Injections 171.2.14 Low Short Circuit Levels 201.2.15 Protection and Control Issues 201.2.16 Short Circuit Current Issues 201.2.17 Unintentional Islanding 221.2.18 Frequency Regulation Issues due to Reduced Inertia 231.2.18.1 Under Frequency Response 231.2.18.2 Over Frequency Response 261.2.19 Angular Stability Issues due to Reduced Inertia 261.3 Development of Smart Inverters 281.3.1 Developments in Germany 291.3.2 Developments in the USA 291.3.3 Development in Canada of Night and Day Control of Solar PV Farms as STATCOM (PV-STATCOM) 291.4 Conclusions 30References 302 Smart Inverter Functions 352.1 Capability Characteristics of Distributed Energy Resource (DER) 352.2 General Considerations in Implementation of Smart Inverter Functions 372.2.1 Performance Categories 382.2.1.1 Normal Performance 392.2.1.2 Abnormal Performance 392.2.2 Reactive Power Capability of DERs 392.2.2.1 Active Power (Watt) Precedence Mode 402.2.2.2 Reactive Power (Var) Precedence Mode 412.3 Smart Inverter Functions for Reactive Power and Voltage Control 412.3.1 Constant Power Factor Function 412.3.2 Constant Reactive Power Function 412.3.3 Voltage-Reactive Power (Volt-Var) Function 412.3.4 Active Power-Reactive Power (Watt-Var or P-Q) Function 422.3.5 Dynamic Voltage Support Function 442.3.5.1 Dynamic Network Support Function 442.3.5.2 Dynamic Reactive Current Support Function 452.4 Smart Inverter Function for Voltage and Active Power Control 462.4.1 Voltage-Active Power (Volt-Watt) Function 462.4.2 Coordination with Volt-Var Function 482.4.3 Dynamic Volt-Watt Function 482.5 Low/High Voltage Ride-Through (L/H VRT) Function 502.5.1 IEEE Standard 1547-2018 512.5.2 North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Standard PRC-024 532.6 Frequency-Watt Function 542.6.1 Frequency-Watt Function 1 552.6.2 Frequency-Watt Function 2 562.6.3 Frequency Droop Function 562.6.4 Frequency-Watt Function with Energy Storage 562.7 Low/High Frequency Ride-Through (L/H FRT) Function 572.7.1 IEEE Standard 1547-2018 582.7.2 North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) Standard PRC-024 592.8 Ramp Rate 592.9 Fast Frequency Response 612.10 Smart Inverter Functions Related to DERs Based on Energy Storage Systems 612.10.1 Direct Charge/Discharge Function 612.10.2 Price-Based Charge/Discharge Function 622.10.3 Coordinated Charge/Discharge Management Function 622.10.3.1 Time-Based Charging Model 632.10.3.2 Duration at Maximum Charging and Discharging Rates 632.11 Limit Maximum Active Power Function 642.11.1 Without Energy Storage 642.11.2 With Energy Storage System 652.12 Set Active Power Mode 652.13 Active Power Smoothing Mode 652.14 Active Power Following Function 652.15 Prioritization of Different Functions 652.15.1 Active Power-related Functions 662.15.1.1 Functions Affecting Operating Boundaries 662.15.1.2 Dynamic Functions 662.15.1.3 Steady-State Functions Managing Watt Input/Output 662.15.2 Reactive Power-Related Functions 662.15.2.1 Dynamic Functions 662.15.2.2 Steady-State Functions 662.15.3 Smart Inverter Functions Under Abnormal Conditions 662.16 Emerging Functions 672.16.1 PV-STATCOM: Control of PV inverters as STATCOM during Night and Day 672.16.2 Reactive Power at No Active Power Output 672.17 Summary 68References 683 Modeling and Control of Three-Phase Smart PV Inverters 733.1 Power Flow from a Smart Inverter System 733.1.1 Active Power Flow 753.1.1.1 Magnitude of Active Power Flow 753.1.1.2 Direction of Active Power Flow 753.1.2 Reactive Power Flow 753.1.2.1 Magnitude of Reactive Power Flow 753.1.2.2 Direction of Reactive Power Flow 763.1.3 Implementation of Smart Inverter Functions 763.2 Smart PV Inverter System 773.3 Power Circuit Constituents of Smart Inverter System 793.3.1 PV Panels 793.3.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Scheme 823.3.3 Non-MPP Voltage Control 823.3.4 Voltage Source Converter (VSC) 833.3.4.1 DC-Link Capacitor 843.3.4.2 AC Filter 843.3.4.3 Isolation Transformer 863.4 Control Circuit Constituents of Smart Inverter System 863.4.1 Measurement Filters 863.4.2 abc-dq Transformation 873.4.2.1 Concept 873.4.2.2 Theoretical Basis 883.4.2.3 Power in abc and dq Reference Frame 913.4.3 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) 923.4.4 Phase Locked Loop (PLL) 943.4.5 Current Controller 973.4.6 DC-Link Voltage Controller 993.5 Smart Inverter Voltage Controllers 1003.5.1 Volt-Var Control 1013.5.2 Closed-Loop Voltage Controller 1013.6 PV Plant Control 1023.7 Modeling Guidelines 1043.8 Summary 104References 1044 PV-STATCOM: A New Smart PV Inverter and a New FACTS Controller 1074.1 Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) 1074.2 Static Var Compensator (SVC) 1094.3 Synchronous Condenser 1114.4 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) 1134.5 Control Modes of SVC and STATCOM 1184.5.1 Dynamic Voltage Regulation 1184.5.1.1 Power Transfer Without Midpoint Voltage Regulation 1194.5.1.2 Power Transfer with Midpoint Voltage Regulation 1194.5.2 Modulation of Bus Voltage in Response to System Oscillations 1214.5.3 Load Compensation 1224.6 Photovoltaic-Static Synchronous Compensator (PV-STATCOM) 1224.7 Operating Modes of PV-STATCOM 1244.7.1 Nighttime 1244.7.2 Daytime with Active Power Priority 1244.7.3 Daytime with Reactive Power Priority 1254.7.3.1 Reactive Power Modulation After Full Active Power Curtailment 1254.7.3.2 Reactive Power Modulation After Partial Active Power Curtailment 1264.7.3.3 Simultaneous Active and Reactive Power Modulation After Partial Active Power Curtailment 1264.7.3.4 Simultaneous Active and Reactive Power Modulation with Pre-existing Active Power Curtailment 1274.7.4 Methodology of Modulation of Active Power 1274.8 Functions of PV-STATCOM 1284.8.1 A New Smart Inverter 1284.8.2 A New FACTS Controller 1294.9 Cost of Transforming an Existing Solar PV System into PV-STATCOM 1294.9.1 Constituents of a PV System 1304.9.2 Costing of PV-STATCOM 1304.9.2.1 Cost of 5 Mvar PV-STATCOM 1314.9.2.2 Cost of 100 Mvar PV-STATCOM 1324.9.3 Cost of a STATCOM 1334.9.3.1 Equipment Cost 1334.9.3.2 Infrastructure Costs 1334.10 Cost of Operating a PV-STATCOM 1354.10.1 Nighttime Operating Costs 1354.10.2 Daytime Operating Costs 1354.10.3 Additional Costs 1354.10.4 Technical Considerations of PV-STATCOM and STATCOM 1364.10.4.1 Number of Inverters 1364.10.4.2 Ability to Provide Full Reactive Power at Nighttime 1364.10.4.3 Transient Overvoltage and Overcurrent Rating 1364.10.4.4 Low Voltage Ride-through 1364.10.5 Potential of PV-STATCOM 1374.11 Summary 138References 1395 PV-STATCOM Applications in Distribution Systems 1455.1 Nighttime Application of PV Solar Farm as STATCOM to Regulate Grid Voltage 1455.1.1 Modeling of Solar PV System 1465.1.2 Solar Farm Inverter Control 1465.1.3 Simulation Study 1475.1.4 Summary 1495.2 Increasing Wind Farm Connectivity with PV-STATCOM 1495.2.1 Study System 1505.2.2 Control System 1505.2.3 Model of Wind Farm 1515.2.4 Simulation Studies 1515.2.4.1 Mitigation of Steady-state Voltage Rise 1515.2.4.2 Control of Transient Overvoltage 1535.2.4.3 PV-STATCOM Reactive Power Requirement 1535.2.4.4 Effect of Distance of PV-STATCOM from Wind Farm 1535.2.4.5 Increase in Wind Farm Connectivity 1555.2.5 Summary 1555.3 Dynamic Voltage Control by PV-STATCOM 1565.3.1 Study System 1565.3.2 Control System 1575.3.2.1 DC-link Voltage Control 1575.3.2.2 AC Voltage Control 1575.3.2.3 Power Factor Control (PFC) 1575.3.3 Operation Mode Selector 1575.3.4 PSCAD Simulation Studies 1595.3.4.1 Full STATCOM Mode - Daytime 1595.3.4.2 Full STATCOM Mode - Nighttime 1615.3.4.3 Low-voltage Ride-through (LVRT) 1635.3.5 Summary 1635.4 Enhancement of Solar Farm Connectivity by PV-STATCOM 1655.4.1 Study System 1655.4.2 System Modeling 1665.4.3 Control System 1665.4.3.1 Operation Mode Selector 1685.4.3.2 PCC Voltage Control 1695.4.3.3 TOV Detection Block 1695.4.4 Simulation Studies 1715.4.4.1 Conventional PV System (Without PV-STATCOM Control) 1715.4.4.2 PV-STATCOM and Two Conventional Solar PV Systems 1715.4.5 Summary 1755.5 Reduction of Line Losses by PV-STATCOM 1755.5.1 Concept of PV-STATCOM Voltage Control for Line Loss Reduction 1755.5.1.1 Determination of Optimal Voltage Setpoints 1785.5.1.2 Inverter Operating Losses 1785.5.2 Simulation Studies 1795.5.2.1 Case Study 1: Two Bus Radial System with Constant Load 1795.5.2.2 Case Study II: IEEE 33 Bus System with Variable Load 1815.5.2.3 Improvement in Loss Reduction with PV-STATCOM 1815.5.3 Summary 1845.6 Stabilization of a Remotely Located Critical Motor by PV-STATCOM 1865.6.1 Study Systems 1875.6.1.1 Study System 1 1875.6.1.2 Study System 2 1885.6.2 Study System with PV-STATCOM Control 1895.6.2.1 Grid-Connected Solar PV Plant 1895.6.2.2 Conventional PV Inverter Control 1905.6.2.3 PV-STATCOM Controller 1905.6.3 Simulation Studies on Study System 1 1935.6.3.1 Performance of the Proposed PV-STATCOM Controller 1945.6.3.2 Comparison of PV-STATCOM and STATCOM Operation 1965.6.4 Field Validation Tests on Utility Solar PV System 1965.6.4.1 PV Solar Plant Without PV-STATCOM Control 1975.6.4.2 PV Solar System Operation According to German Grid Code 1975.6.4.3 PV Solar System Operating as PV-STATCOM at Night 1985.6.5 Simulation Studies on Study System 2 1995.6.6 Summary 1995.7 Conclusions 199References 2006 PV-STATCOM Applications in Transmission Systems 2056.1 Increasing Power Transmission Capacity by PV-STATCOM 2056.1.1 Study Systems 2066.1.2 System Model 2066.1.3 Control System 2096.1.3.1 Conventional Reactive Power Control 2096.1.3.2 PCC Voltage Control 2096.1.3.3 Damping Control 2096.1.4 Power Transfer Studies for Study System I 2106.1.4.1 Nighttime Operation of Solar PV System as PV-STATCOM 2106.1.4.2 Daytime Operation of Solar PV System as PV-STATCOM 2116.1.5 Power Transfer Studies for Study System II 2166.1.5.1 Nighttime Operation of Solar DG and Wind DG as STATCOM 2166.1.5.2 Daytime Operation of Solar DG and Wind DG as STATCOM 2166.1.6 Summary 2196.2 Power Oscillation Damping by PV-STATCOM 2196.2.1 Study System 2206.2.2 PV-STATCOM Control System 2206.2.2.1 DC Voltage Controller 2206.2.2.2 Conventional PV Controller 2226.2.2.3 Q-POD Controller 2226.2.2.4 Oscillation Detection Unit (ODU) 2226.2.2.5 PV Active Power Controllers 2226.2.2.6 Design of POD Controller 2246.2.2.7 Small Signal Studies of the POD Control 2246.2.3 Simulations Studies 2256.2.3.1 Power Transfer without PV-STATCOM Control 2256.2.3.2 Power Transfer with Full STATCOM Damping Control and Power Restoration in Normal Ramped Manner 2256.2.3.3 Power Transfer with Full STATCOM Damping Control andRamped Power Restoration with POD Control Active in Partial STATCOM Mode 2266.2.3.4 Nighttime Power Transfer Enhancement with Full STATCOM POD Control 2266.2.3.5 Effect of PV-STATCOM Control on System Frequency 2286.2.4 Summary 2286.3 Power Oscillation Damping with Combined Active and Reactive Power Modulation Control of PV-STATCOM 2286.3.1 Modes of PV-STATCOM Control 2296.3.1.1 Partial STATCOM 2296.3.1.2 Full STATCOM 2296.3.2 Study System 2306.3.3 PV-STATCOM Control System 2306.3.4 PV Reactive Power Controllers 2306.3.4.1 Conventional Reactive Power Control 2306.3.4.2 Q-POD Controller 2306.3.5 PV-Active Power Controllers 2326.3.5.1 Conventional Active Power Control 2326.3.5.2 P-POD Controller 2326.3.5.3 PQ-POD Controller 2326.3.5.4 Active Power Restoration Controller 2326.3.6 Small Signal PV-STATCOM Modeling 2326.3.7 Selection of PV-STATCOM Controller Mode 2336.3.8 Design of POD Controllers 2346.3.9 Effect of PV-STATCOM Placement on Effectiveness of POD Techniques 2346.3.9.1 Residue Analysis for PV-STATCOM with Q-POD 2346.3.9.2 Residue Analysis for PV-STATCOM with P-POD 2346.3.10 Simulation Studies 2356.3.10.1 POD by PV-STATCOM 2366.3.10.2 Effect of POD Controllers on System Frequency 2396.3.10.3 Effect of PV Active Power Output on POD Controls 2396.3.10.4 POD by PV-STATCOM Connected at Other Buses 2396.3.11 Summary 2406.4 Mitigation of Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) in Synchronous Generator by PV-STATCOM 2406.4.1 Study System 2416.4.2 Control System 2416.4.3 SSR Damping Controller 2436.4.4 DC Voltage Controller 2436.4.5 Simulation Studies 2456.4.5.1 Damping of Critical Mode 1 (67% Series Compensation) 2476.4.5.2 Ramp Up without PV-STATCOM Control 2476.4.5.3 Damping of Critical Mode 2 (54% Series Compensation) 2506.4.5.4 Damping of Critical Mode 3 (41% Series Compensation) 2506.4.5.5 Damping of Critical Mode 4 (26% Series Compensation) 2516.4.6 Potential of Utilizing Large Solar Farms for Damping SSR 2516.4.7 Summary 2536.5 Alleviation of Subsynchronous Oscillations (SSOs) in Induction-Generator-Based Wind Farm by PV-STATCOM 2546.5.1 Study System 2546.5.2 Control System 2566.5.2.1 Current Controller 2566.5.2.2 Damping Controller 2566.5.2.3 DC Voltage Controller 2576.5.3 Simulation Studies 2576.5.3.1 Daytime Case Study: PV System Connected at Wind Farm Terminal 2576.5.3.2 Daytime Case Study: PV System Connected at Line Midpoint 2596.5.3.3 Nighttime Case Study: SSO Alleviation by PV-STATCOM 2606.5.4 Potential of Utilizing Large Solar Farms for Alleviating SSO in Wind Farms 2626.5.5 Summary 2626.6 Mitigation of Fault-Induced Delayed Voltage Recovery (FIDVR) by PV-STATCOM 2636.6.1 Study System 2646.6.2 Structure of a Large Utility-Scale Solar PV Plant 2656.6.3 Proposed PV-STATCOM Control 2656.6.3.1 Mode Selector 2676.6.3.2 Sensitivity Calculator 2686.6.3.3 Current Reference Calculator 2706.6.4 Design of PV-STATCOM Controllers 2716.6.5 Simulation Studies 2716.6.5.1 Response of IMs for LLL-G Fault with no PV Plant Control 2716.6.5.2 Performance of Proposed PV-STATCOM Controller 2716.6.5.3 Advantage of Enhanced Voltage Support up to TOV Limit 2746.6.5.4 Comparison of Proposed PV STATCOM Controller and Other Smart Inverter Controls 2746.6.5.5 Comparison of PV STATCOM Controller and STATCOM 2756.6.5.6 PV-STATCOM Impact on System Frequency 2766.6.5.7 Nighttime Performance of PV-STATCOM Controller 2776.6.5.8 Compliance with IEEE Standard 1547-2018 2776.6.6 Summary 2786.7 Simultaneous Fast Frequency Control and Power Oscillation Damping by PV-STATCOM 2796.7.1 Study System 2806.7.2 System Modeling 2816.7.2.1 PV Plant Model 2816.7.2.2 Combined FFR and POD Controller 2816.7.3 Simulation Scenarios 2836.7.4 Over-Frequency Control 2846.7.4.1 25 MW Load Trip in Area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 0); (Power Imbalance less than PV Plant Capacity) 2846.7.4.2 200 MW Load Trip in Area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 0); (Power Imbalance more than PV Plant Capacity) 2866.7.5 Under Frequency Control 2866.7.5.1 25 MW Load Connection in Area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 50%); (Power Imbalance less than PV Plant Capacity) 2866.7.5.2 100 MWLoad Connection in Area 1 (Pavailable = 100 MW, Kcurt = 50%); (Power Imbalance more than PV Plant Capacity) 2886.7.6 Performance Comparison of Proposed FFR + POD Control with Conventional Frequency Control 2906.7.7 Summary 2916.8 Conclusions 292References 2927 Increasing Hosting Capacity by Smart Inverters - Concepts and Applications 3017.1 Hosting Capacity of Distribution Feeders 3017.1.1 Voltage 3027.1.2 Thermal Overloading 3027.2 Hosting Capacity Based on Voltage Violations 3027.3 Increasing Hosting Capacity with Non Smart Inverter Techniques 3047.3.1 Active Power Curtailment (APC) 3057.3.2 Change in Orientation of PV Panels 3067.3.3 Correlation between Load and PV Systems 3067.3.4 Demand Side Management (DSM) 3067.3.5 On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) Transformers, Voltage Regulators, and Switched Capacitors 3067.3.6 Application of Decentralized Energy Storage Systems 3067.3.7 Energy Storage Requirements for Achieving 50% Solar PV Energy Penetration in California 3077.3.8 Comparative Evaluation of Different Techniques for Increasing Hosting Capacity 3077.3.8.1 Active Power Curtailment 3087.3.8.2 Different PV System Orientations 3087.3.8.3 Correlation with Load 3097.3.8.4 Demand Side Management (DSM) Approach 3107.3.8.5 On Load Tap Changer Transformer (OLTC) 3117.3.8.6 Storage 3117.3.8.7 Reactive Power Control (RPC) 3117.3.9 Summary 3117.4 Characteristics of Different Smart Inverter Functions 3127.4.1 Constant Power Factor 3127.4.1.1 Advantages 3127.4.1.2 Potential Issues 3137.4.2 Volt-Var Function 3147.4.2.1 Advantages 3147.4.2.2 Potential Issues 3147.4.3 Volt-Watt Control 3147.4.3.1 Advantages 3147.4.3.2 Potential Issues 3157.4.4 Active Power Limit 3157.4.4.1 Advantages 3157.4.4.2 Potential Issues 3157.5 Factors Affecting Hosting Capacity of Distribution Feeders 3157.5.1 Size and Location of DER 3157.5.2 Physical Characteristics of Distribution System 3167.5.3 DER Technology 3167.5.4 PV Hosting Capacity Estimation 3167.5.4.1 Impact of Feeder Characteristics 3167.5.4.2 Impact of Smart Inverter Functions 3197.6 Determination of Settings of Constant Power Factor Function 3207.6.1 Single DER System 3207.6.2 Multiple DERs 3217.6.2.1 Median Feeder X/R Ratio 3217.6.2.2 Weighted Average X/R Ratio 3217.6.2.3 Sensitivity Analysis Based Technique 3217.6.2.4 Performance Comparison of the Three Methods 3227.7 Impact of DER Interconnection Transformer 3227.8 Determination of Smart Inverter Function Settings from Quasi-Static Time-Series (QSTS) Analysis 3237.8.1 Development of Detailed Feeder Model 3257.8.1.1 Distribution System 3257.8.1.2 Conventional Voltage Regulation Equipment 3257.8.1.3 PV Systems with Smart Inverter Controls 3257.8.1.4 Type of Smart Inverter Control 3267.8.1.5 Performance Criteria 3267.8.2 Simulation of Quasi-Static Time-Series Model 3277.8.2.1 Characterization of Solar Conditions 3277.8.2.2 Characterization of Load Conditions 3287.8.2.3 Simulation Studies 3287.8.3 Analysis of Results 3287.8.4 Selection of Appropriate Setting 3297.9 Guidelines for Selection of Smart Inverter Settings 3307.9.1 Autonomous Default Settings 3307.9.2 Non-optimized Settings 3307.9.3 Optimized Settings 3317.10 Determination of Sites for Implementing DERs with Smart Inverter Functions 3317.11 Mitigation Methods for Increasing Hosting Capacity 3337.12 Increasing Hosting Capacity in Thermally Constrained Distribution Networks 3347.13 Utility Simulation Studies of Smart Inverters for Increasing Hosting Capacity 3347.13.1 Voltage Control in a Distribution Feeder with High PV Penetration 3347.13.2 Smart Inverter Functions for Increasing Hosting Capacity in New York Distribution Systems 3357.13.3 Impact of Different Smart Inverter Functions in Increasing Hosting Capacity in Hawaii 3377.13.4 Smart Inverter Impacts on California Distribution Feeders with Increasing PV Penetration 3397.13.4.1 Methodology 3407.13.4.2 Voltage Profile Along Feeder 3407.13.4.3 Maximum Voltage 3407.13.4.4 Minimum Voltage 3417.13.4.5 Tap Operations 3427.13.4.6 Line Losses 3427.13.4.7 Voltage Fluctuations 3427.13.5 Mitigation Methods to Increase Feeder Hosting Capacity 3437.13.5.1 Assessment of Base Feeder 3437.13.5.2 Integration Solution Assessment 3447.13.5.3 Volt-Watt Function 3447.13.5.4 Volt-Var Function 3467.13.5.5 Watt-Power Factor Function 3467.13.5.6 Fixed Power Factor Function 3497.13.6 Impact of Smart Inverter Functions in Increasing Hosting Capacity in Five California Distribution Feeders 3497.13.6.1 Volt-Var Control 3527.13.6.2 Volt-Watt Control 3537.13.6.3 Limiting Maximum Real Power (LMRP) Output Function 3537.13.6.4 Selection of the Smart Inverter Settings 3547.13.7 Hosting Capacity Experience in Utah 3547.13.7.1 Constant Power Factor Function 3547.13.7.2 Volt-Var Function 3547.14 Field Implementation of Smart Inverters for Increasing Hosting Capacity 3557.14.1 Voltage Control by Constant Power Factor Function in a Distribution Feeder in Fontana, USA 3557.14.2 Smart Inverter Demonstration in Porterville Feeder in California 3567.14.3 Improvement in Feeder Hosting Capacity Through Smart Inverter Controls in Upper Austria 3587.14.4 Demonstration of Smart Inverter Controls under the META PV Project Funded by the European Commission 3597.14.5 Arizona Public Service Solar Partner Program 3597.14.6 Increasing Renewables Hosting Capacity in the Czech Republic 3617.14.6.1 Use Case 1: Increasing DER Hosting Capacity of LV Distribution Networks 3617.14.6.2 Use Case 2: Increasing DER Hosting Capacity in MV Networks 3627.14.7 Hosting Capacity Experience in Salt River Project 3637.15 Conclusions 364References 3658 Control Coordination of Smart PV Inverters 3698.1 Concepts of Control Coordination 3698.1.1 Need for Coordination 3698.1.2 Frequency Range of Control Interactions 3708.1.2.1 Steady-State Interactions 3708.1.2.2 Electromechanical Oscillation Interactions 3708.1.2.3 Control System Interactions 3718.1.2.4 Subsynchronous Oscillation (SSO) Interactions 3718.1.2.5 High-frequency Interactions 3718.1.3 Principle of Coordination 3728.2 Coordination of Smart Inverters with Conventional Voltage Controllers 3728.2.1 European IGREENGrid Project 3728.2.2 Interaction of Smart Inverters with Load Tap Changing Transformers 3738.2.2.1 System Modeling 3758.2.2.2 Simulation Studies 3768.2.3 Coordination of Smart Inverters with Distribution Voltage Control Strategies 3778.2.3.1 System Modeling 3778.2.3.2 Simulation Studies 3788.2.4 Coordination of Transformer On-Load Tap Changer and PV Smart Inverters for Voltage Control of Distribution Feeders 3808.3 Control Interactions - Lessons Learned from Coordination of FACTS Controllers for Voltage Control 3818.3.1 Controller Interaction Among Static Var Compensators in a Test System 3838.3.2 Controller Interaction Among Multiple Static Var Compensators in Hydro-Quebec System 3848.4 Control Interactions Among Smart PV Inverters and their Mitigation 3858.4.1 Concepts of Control Stability with Volt-Var Control in a Single Smart PV Inverter 3878.4.2 Concepts of Control Stability with Volt-Var Control with Multiple Smart PV Inverters 3928.4.3 Control Interactions Within a Smart Inverter 3928.4.4 Smart Inverters with Volt-Var Functions 3938.4.5 Control Interaction Between Volt-Var Controls of Smart Inverters 3968.4.6 Oscillations Due to Voltage Control by Smart Inverter 3988.4.7 Control Interactions of Volt-Var Controllers 4008.4.8 Controller Interaction Between Volt-Var and Volt-Watt Controllers 4028.5 Study of Smart Inverter Controller Interactions 4048.6 Case Study of Controller Coordination of Smart Inverters in a Realistic Distribution System 4058.6.1 Study System 4068.6.2 Small Signal Modeling of Study System 4078.6.2.1 Network 4078.6.2.2 PV Plant 4078.6.2.3 Overall Study System Model 4108.6.3 Small Signal Studies 4108.6.3.1 Impact of Delay 4108.6.3.2 Impact of Response Time 4118.6.4 Time Domain Simulation Studies 4118.6.4.1 Impact of Delay 4128.6.4.2 Impact of Response Time 4128.6.5 Summary 4138.7 Control Coordination of PV-STATCOM and DFIG Wind Farm for Mitigation of Subsynchronous Oscillations 4138.7.1 Study System 4148.7.2 Control System of DFIG 4158.7.3 Control System of PV-STATCOM 4168.7.4 Optimization of Subsynchronous Damping Controllers 4168.7.5 System Response with No Subsynchronous Damping Controls 4168.7.6 Independently Optimized SSDC of DFIG Converter 4198.7.7 Independently Optimized SSDC of PV-STATCOM 4198.7.8 Uncoordinated SSDCs of PV-STATCOM and DFIG Converter 4208.7.9 Coordinated SSDCs of PV-STATCOM and DFIG Converter 4208.8 Control Interactions Among Plants of Inverter Based Resources and FACTS/HVDC Controllers 4248.9 Conclusions 424References 4259 Emerging Trends with Smart Solar PV Inverters 4319.1 Combination of Smart PV Inverters with Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) 4319.1.1 Increasing Hosting Capacity 4319.1.2 Capacity Firming 4349.1.3 Preventing Curtailment of Wind/Solar Plant Outputs and Managing Ramp Rates 4349.2 Combination of Smart PV Inverters with Electric Vehicle Charging Systems 4359.3 Combination of Smart PV Inverters with Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and EV Charging Systems 4379.4 Grid Forming Inverter Technology 4409.4.1 Grid Following Inverters 4419.4.2 Grid Forming Inverters 4419.4.3 Considerations in the Application of Grid Forming Inverters 4419.5 Field Demonstrations of Smart Solar PV Inverters 4419.5.1 Reactive Power Control by Solar PV Plant in China 4429.5.2 Active Power Controls by a PV Plant in Puerto Rico Island Grid, USA 4429.5.3 Reliability Services by a 300 MW Solar PV Plant in California, USA 4439.5.3.1 Automatic Generation Control (AGC) Test 4439.5.3.2 Droop Test During Underfrequency Event 4449.5.3.3 Droop Test During Overfrequency Event 4459.5.3.4 Power Factor Control Test 4469.5.4 Night and Day PV-STATCOM Operation by a Solar PV Plant in Ontario, Canada 4489.5.4.1 Study System 4489.5.4.2 PV-STATCOM Controller 4499.5.4.3 Response of Conventional PV Inverter to a Large Disturbance During Daytime 4519.5.4.4 Response of PV-STATCOM to a Large Disturbance During Daytime 4529.5.4.5 Response of Conventional Inverter to a Large Disturbance During Nighttime 4529.5.4.6 Response of PV-STATCOM to a Large Disturbance During Nighttime 4549.5.4.7 Summary 4569.5.5 Nighttime Reactive Power Support from a Solar PV Plant in UK 4569.5.6 Commercial Ancillary Grid Services by Solar PV Plant in Chile 4569.5.7 Nighttime Reactive Power Control by a Solar PV Plant in India 4579.6 Potential of New Revenue Making Opportunities for Smart Solar PV Inverters 4579.6.1 Providing Ancillary Services Without Curtailing PV Power Output 4579.6.2 Providing Ancillary Services by Curtailing PV Power Output 4579.6.2.1 Fast Frequency Response and Frequency Regulation Services 4579.6.2.2 Flexible Solar Operation 4589.6.3 Providing Reactive Power Support at Night 4589.6.4 Providing STATCOM Functionalities 4599.7 Conclusions 461References 461Index 465

O autorze

Rajiv K. Varma is Professor in Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of Western Ontario in London, ON, Canada. He is an internationally renowned researcher in FACTS and grid integration of solar PV and wind power systems. He received the prestigious IEEE PES Nari Hingorani FACTS Award in 2021 "for advancing FACTS controllers application in education, research, and professional society, and for developing an innovative STATCOM technology utilizing PV solar farms." He became a Fellow of the Canadian Academy of Engineering in 2021 with the citation, "...Among his pioneering contributions has been a major ground-breaking utility-implemented award-winning technology, PV-STATCOM, that enables solar PV plants to provide FACTS functionalities at one-tenth cost of FACTS themselves..."