Polymer Blends and Composites

ISBN-13: 9781461357100 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 513 str.

John A. Manson; John A. Manson

Opis

The need for writing a monograph on polymer blends and composites became apparent during presentation of material on this subject to our advanced polymers class. Although the flood of important research in this area in the past decade has resulted in many symposia, edited collections of papers, reviews, contributions to scientific journals, and patents, apparently no organized presentation in book form has been forthcoming. In a closely connected way, another strong impetus for writing this monograph arose out of our research programs in the Materials Research Center at Lehigh University. As part of this effort, we had naturally compiled hundreds of references and become acquainted with many leaders in the field of blend and composite research. Perhaps the most important concept stressed over and over again is that engineering materials are useful because of their complexity, not in spite of it. Blends and composites are toughened because many modes of resistance to failure are available. Although such multimechanism processes are diffi- cult to describe with a unified theory. we have presented available develop- ments in juxtaposition with the experimental portions. The arguments somewhat resemble the classical discussion of resonance in organic chemistry, where molecular structures increase in stability as more electronic configura- tions become available.

Spis treści

1. Homopolymer Structure and Behavior.- 1.1. High Polymers.- 1.2. Molecular Size and Shape.- 1.2.1. Chain Conformation.- 1.2.2. Chain Entanglement.- 1.3. Molecular Structure.- 1.3.1. Configurations of Polymer Chains.- 1.3.2. Stereo and Geometrical Isomerism.- 1.3.3. Random Branching.- 1.3.4. Nonrandom Branching.- 1.3.5. Crosslinking.- 1.4. Crystallinity and Order.- 1.4.1. Fringed Micelle Model.- 1.4.2. Folded-Chain Single Crystals.- 1.4.3. Extended-Chain Crystals.- 1.4.4.Spherulites.- 1.5. Mechanical Response: Elasticity and Viscoelasticity.- 1.5.1. Molecular and Segmental Motion.- 1.5.2. Modulus-Temperature Behavior.- 1.5.3. Five Regions of Viscoelastic Behavior.- 1.5.4. Rubberlike Elasticity.- 1.5.5. Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy.- 1.5.6. Stress-Relaxation and Creep Behavior.- 1.5.7. Time-Temperature Relationship.- 1.6. Energetics and Mechanics of Fracture.- 1.6.1. General Approach to Fracture.- 1.6.2. Energy Balance in Fracture.- 1.6.3. Viscoelastic Rupture of Elastomers.- 1.7. Mechanical Testing of Polymers.- 1.7.1. Stress-Strain and Fracture Behavior.- 1.7.2. Impact Strength.- 1.7.3. Fatigue.- Appendix A. Polymer Synthesis.- Appendix B. Basic Mechanical Properties and Relationships.- Bibliography of Polymer Books and Journals.- 2. General Behavior of Polymer Mixtures.- 2.1. Methods of Mixing Polymer Pairs.- 2.1.1. Polymer Blends.- 2.1.2. Graft Copolymers.- 2.1.3. Block Copolymers.- 2.1.4. Interpenetrating Polymer Networks (IPN’s).- 2.2. Interdiffusion.- 2.3. Nomenclature.- 2.4. Electron Microscopy.- 2.5. The Incompatibility Problem.- 2.5.1. Thermodynamics of Mixing.- 2.5.2. Polymer-Polymer Phase Diagrams.- 2.6. Bulk Behavior of Two-Phase Polymeric Materials.- 2.6.1. Glass Transitions.- 2.6.2. Modulus-Temperature Behavior of Model Polyblends.- 2.6.3. Stress-Relaxation Behavior.- 2.6.4. The Takayanagi Models.- 2.6.5. Free Volume Model.- 2.6.6. Other Models.- 2.6.7. Morphology-Modulus Interrelationships.- 2.7. Analogy between Polymer Blends and Crystalline Homopolymers.- 2.8. Polymer Blend Chronology.- Appendix A. Counterpart Phase Separation Characteristics of Metallic Alloys and Inorganic Glasses.- Bibliography of Polymer Blend Symposia.- 3. Rubber-Toughened Plastics.- 3.1. Synthesis and Morphology.- 3.1.1. Impact-Resistant Polystyrene.- 3.1.1.1. Solution-Type Graft Copolymers.- 3.1.1.2. Phase Inversion.- 3.1.1.3. Grafting vs. Mechanical Entrapment.- 3.1.2. ABS Resins.- 3.1.2.1. Emulsion Polymerization.- 3.1.2.2. Structure of the Latex Grafts.- 3.1.3. Origin of the Cell Structure.- 3.1.4. Poly(vinyl chloride) Blends.- 3.1.5. Mixed Latex Blends.- 3.2. Physical and Mechanical Behavior of Polyblends.- 3.2.1. The Effect of Compatibility on Transition Behavior.- 3.2.2. Impact Resistance and Deformation.- 3.2.2.1. Impact Behavior.- 3.2.2.2. Tensile and Creep Behavior.- 3.2.2.3. Fatigue Behavior.- 3.2.3. Toughening Mechanisms.- 3.2.3.1. Crazing and Shear Phenomena.- 3.2.3.2. Characteristics of the Rubber.- 3.3. Optical Properties of Polyblends.- 3.4. Oxidation and Weathering of Polyblends.- 4. Diblock and Triblock Copolymers.- 4.1. Synthesis.- 4.1.1. Dilithium Initiators.- 4.1.2. Mechanochemical Methods.- 4.2. Solution Behavior of Block Copolymers.- 4.3. Plastic Compositions.- 4.4. Thermoplastic Elastomers.- 4.5. Long-Range Domain Order.- 4.6. Thermodynamics of Domain Characteristics.- 4.7. Thermodynamic Criteria for Phase Separation.- 4.7.1. Zeroth Approximation.- 4.7.2. Dilute Solution Approach.- 4.7.3. Diffusion Equation Approach.- 4.8. Effect of Solvent Casting on Morphology.- 4.9. Effect of Deformation on Morphology.- 4.10. Mixtures of A–B Blocks with A and B Mechanical Blends.- 4.11. Rheological Behavior of Block Copolymers.- 5. Multiblock Copolymers, Including Ionomers.- 5.1. Segmented Polyurethane Elastomers.- 5.1.1. Modulus and Swelling Behavior.- 5.1.2. Stress-Strain Behavior.- 5.1.3. Stress-Optical Behavior.- 5.1.4. Tensile Strength and Abrasion Resistance.- 5.1.5. Some Generalizations.- 5.2. Carboxylic Rubbers and Ionomers.- 5.2.1. Carboxylic Rubbers.- 5.2.2. Ionomers.- 5.2.3. Phase Structure of Ionomers.- 6. Crystalline Block Copolymers.- 6.1. Crystallizable Block Copolymers: Styrene-Ethylene Oxide.- 6.1.1. Synthesis and General Properties.- 6.1.2. Mesomorphic Gels.- 6.1.3. Crystalline Forms from the Melt.- 6.1.4. Crystalline Forms Cast from Solution : Spherulitic Morphology.- 6.1.5. Crystalline Forms from Dilute Solution: Single Crystals.- 6.1.6. Bulk Thermal and Transition Behavior.- 6.1.7. Mechanical, Dielectric, and Rheological Behavior.- 6.2. Crystallization: General Aspects.- 6.2.1. Fractionation.- 6.2.2. Structural Models.- 6.2.3. Criterion of Stability.- 6.2.4. Energetics.- 6.3. Kinetics of Crystallization.- 6.3.1. Effect of Dissolution Temperature.- 6.3.2. Effects of the Original Crystallization Temperature.- 6.3.3. Number and Nature of Nuclei.- 6.3.4. Effect of Final Crystallization Temperature.- 6.3.5. Rate of Crystallization.- 6.3.6. Variation in Partial Volumes.- 6.4. Siloxane Block Copolymers.- 6.4.1. Synthesis.- 6.4.2. Morphology and Properties.- 6.5. Polyallomers.- 6.6. Summary of Block Copolymer Systems.- 7. Miscellaneous Grafted Copolymers.- 7.1. General Considerations.- 7.2. Surface Graft Copolymers.- 7.2.1. Uses of Surface Grafts.- 7.2.2. Surface Grafts Involving Proteins.- 7.3. Degradation and Crosslinking Reactions.- 7.4. Grafting onto Cellulosic Materials.- 7.4.1. Synthetic Methods.- 7.4.2. More-Heterogeneous-Type Grafts.- 7.4.3. More-Homogeneous-Type Grafts.- 7.5. Nylon Graft Copolymers.- 7.6. Grafting with Polyfunctional Monomers.- 7.6.1. Polyolefins.- 7.6.2. Poly(vinyl chloride).- 7.7. Multipolymer Grafts.- 7.8. Cationic Graft Copolymers.- 8. Interpenetrating Polymer Networks.- 8.1. Synthesis.- 8.2. Morphology of IPN’s.- 8.2.1. General Features.- 8.2.2. Effect of Polymerization Sequence.- 8.2.3. Compatibility and Interpenetration.- 8.3. Physical and Mechanical Behavior of IPN’s.- 8.3.1. Static Relaxation in IPN’s.- 8.3.2. Dynamic Mechanical Spectroscopy (DMS).- 8.4. Ultimate Mechanical Behavior of IPN’s.- 8.5. Interpenetrating Elastomeric Networks (IEN’s).- 8.5.1. Morphology of IEN’s.- 8.5.2. Mechanical Behavior of IEN’s.- 8.6. Semi-IPN Structure and Properties.- 8.6.1. Definition of Semi-IPN’s.- 8.6.2. Morphology.- 8.6.3. Mechanical Behavior.- 8.7. AB Crosslinked Copolymers.- 8.8. Topology of IPN’s.- 8.8.1. Simultaneous Interpenetrating Networks (SIN’s).- 8.8.2. Latex IPN’s.- 8.9. Dual Phase Continuity in IPN’s.- 9. Miscellaneous Polymer Blends.- 9.1. Rubber-Rubber Polyblends.- 9.2. Bicomponent and Biconstituent Fibers.- 9.2.1. Bicomponent Fiber Systems.- 9.2.2. Biconstituent Fiber Systems.- 9.3. Multilayer Films by Melt Coextrusion.- 9.4. Synthetic Paper Polyblends.- 9.5. Charge-Mosaic Membranes.- 9.6. Flow and Morphology of Two-Component Systems.- 9.7. Compatible Polymer Blends.- 9.7.1. Compatible Blends of Amorphous Polymers.- 9.7.2. Isomorphic Polymer Pairs.- 9.8. Wood As a Polyblend-Composite.- 9.8.1. Chemistry and Morphology.- 9.8.2. Mechanical Behavior.- 9.8.3. Wood Modification.- 9.9. Association Complexes.- 10. Reinforcement of Elastomers.- 10.1. Historical Aspects.- 10.2. Types of Fillers.- 10.3. Size and Surface Characteristics of Elastomer Reinforcers.- 10.3.1. Filler Surface Chemistry.- 10.3.2. Morphology and Microstructure of Carbon Blacks.- 10.4. Aggregation and Agglomeration.- 10.4.1. Structure in Carbon Blacks.- 10.4.2. Dispersion of Carbon Black within the Elastomer.- 10.4.3. Structure in Silica Fillers.- 10.5. Bound Rubber.- 10.6. The Mullins Softening Effect.- 10.7. Viscoelastic Rupture of Reinforced Elastomers.- 10.8. Restriction of Molecular Mobility by Filler Surfaces.- 10.9. Thermodynamic Aspects of Reinforcement.- 10.9.1. Modulus Increases.- 10.9.2. The Flory-Rehner Equation.- 10.9.3. Ultimate Tensile Strength.- 10.9.4. Mechanisms and Mechanics of Reinforcement.- 10.10. Swelling Anomalies in Filled Elastomers.- 10.11. Guth-Smallwood Relationship.- 10.12. Crystallizing Elastomers.- 10.13. Model Elastomer-Filler Systems.- 10.14. Effect of Pressure on Reinforcement.- 10.15. Relative Importance of Reinforcement Modes.- 11. Filled Porous Systems.- 11.1. Introduction.- 11.2. Polymer-Impregnated Wood.- 11.2.1. Experimental Conditions.- 11.2.2. Polymerization Characteristics.- 11.2.3. Properties: Dimensional Stability.- 11.2.4. Properties: Mechanical.- 11.2.5. General Comments.- 11.3. Polymer-Impregnated Cements, Mortars, and Concretes.- 11.3.1. Monomer-Impregnated Cement Mixes.- 11.3.2. Latex-Concrete Mixtures.- 11.3.3. Polymer-Impregnated Cements and Concretes.- 11.3.3.1. Mechanical Properties.- 11.3.3.2. Water Absorption and Related Behavior.- 11.3.3.3. Thermal Properties.- 11.3.3.4. Environmental Resistance.- 11.3.3.5. Models for Mechanical Behavior.- 11.3.3.6. Related Systems.- 11.3.4. General Comments.- 12. Particle-and Fiber-Reinforced Plastics.- 12.1. Particulate Phases.- 12.1.1. Mechanical Behavior at Small Strains.- 12.1.1.1. Static and Dynamic Modulus.- 12.1.1.2. Stress Relaxation and Creep.- 12.1.1.3. Damping.- 12.1.2. Mechanical Behavior at Large Strains.- 12.1.2.1. Large vs. Small Strains.- 12.1.2.2. Stress Relaxation.- 12.1.2.3. Yield and Strength Phenomena.- 12.1.2.4. Fracture Toughness.- 12.1.3. Transport Behavior and Other Physical Properties.- 12.1.3.1. Permeability.- 12.1.3.2. Thermal and Electrical Conductivity.- 12.1.3.3. Coefficients of Thermal Expansion and Density.- 12.2. Fiber-Reinforced Composites.- 12.2.1. Mechanical Properties.- 12.2.1.1. Modulus and Tensile Strength.- 12.2.1.2. Fatigue Behavior.- 12.2.2. Role of the Matrix and Interface.- 12.3. Matrix and Interface Behavior.- 12.3.1. Molecular Effects of Rigid Inclusions.- 12.3.1.1. Effects of Fillers on Relaxation Behavior and Other Transitions.- 12.3.1.2. Sorption and Permeability.- 12.3.1.3. Mechanisms of Ordering at the Interface.- 12.3.2. Effects of the Environment.- Appendix A. Typical Equations Used to Predict Moduli of Particulate Composites.- 13. A Peek into the Future.- 13.1. Classification Scheme for Composite Materials.- 13.2. Classification of Polymer Blends.- 13.3. Polymeric Eutectics.- 13.4. The Polymer Mixing Problem.- 13.4.1. Dilute Polymer Solution-Air Interface.- 13.4.2. Emulsion Polymer Conformations.- 13.4.3. Polyblend Phase Boundaries.- 13.4.4. Interfacial Tensions of Polymers.- 13.5. Noise and Vibration Damping.- 13.5.1. Vibration-Damping Blends.- 13.5.2. Extensional and Constrained Layer Damping.- 13.5.3. Gradient IPN’s.- 13.5.4. Constrained Layer Coatings.- 13.6. Paints and Adhesives.- 13.7. An Old Art in a Changing World.- References.- Polymer Index.