Motivation and Action

ISBN-13: 9783642759635 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 504 str.

Heinz Heckhausen; Peter K. Leppmann

Opis

The translation of this volume has been a long and sometime arduous journey giving nearly literal meaning to the Latin term translatus, meaning to carry across. In fact, it required many journeys both geographically, between Canada and Germany, and fig uratively, between German and English language, thought, and culture; between the mind of a German professor and that of his American colleague. Whether or not it was all worthwhile must be left to the reader's judgment, but let me outline the rationale for embarking on this venture. When the first German edition of this book appeared in 1980 it was acclaimed not only by German scholars but by those outside the German-speaking community as well. In fact, it received extremely favorable reviews, even in English-language journals, which is unusual for a foreign text. It was recognized that this was far more than just another text book on motivation. For one thing, it exposed and examined the multi faceted roots that have contributed to contemporary theory and research in motivation. The author skillfully examined the motivational concepts, theories, and research that have emanated from many areas of psychology such as learning theory, social psychol ogy, personality, psychoanalysis, and clinical psychology."

Spis treści

1 The Study of Motivation: Issues and Approaches.- Everyday Experiences and Three Issues.- Naive Explanations of Behavior.- An Explanation for Nonoccurring Behavior.- The Consistency Paradox.- Person-Specific Behavior.- Motive as an Explanatory Concept.- Motivation.- Intention Formation and Volition.- Action.- Postaction Phase.- The Chapter in Retrospect.- 2 Historical Trends in Motivation Research.- The Generation of Pioneers.- The Psychology of the Will.- The Instinct Theory Approach.- Personality Theories.- The Motivation Psychology Approach.- The Cognitive Psychology Approach.- The Personality Psychology Approach.- Associationist Theories.- The Learning Psychology Approach.- The Activation Psychology Approach.- Preview.- 3 Trait Theories of Motivation.- Trait Theories of Motivation: Motives.- Allport’s Idiographic Approach.- Trait as a “Neuropsychic Entity”.- Factoranalytic Trait Theory: R. B. Cattell.- Instinct-based Classification of Motives: W. McDougall.- Motive Classification based on Person-Environment Relationship: H. A. Murray.- A Hierarchical Model of Motive Classification: A. Maslow.- Basic Emotions as a Rudimentary Motivation System.- Taxonomic Problems of Motive Classification Systems.- Three Distinct Approaches.- Achievement-Oriented Behavior as a Distinct Motive Class.- 4 Situational Determinants of Behavior.- Stimulus-Response Association.- Need and Drive.- Drive Theory.- Antecedent Conditions of Drive.- Drive Stimuli.- Independence of Drive and Habit.- Energizing Effects of Drive.- Reinforcement Effects of Drive Reduction.- The General Nature of Drive.- Acquired Drives, Drive as a Strong Stimulus.- Frustration.- Fear as an Acquired Drive.- Conflict Theory.- Lewin’s Conflict Theory.- Miller’s Model of Conflict.- Applications of the Conflict Model.- Activation Theories.- The Construct of Arousal.- The Arousal Potential and its Effects.- Toward a Cognitive Appraisal of the Situation.- Emotion as an Outcome of a Cognitive Appraisal.- Emotion-Triggering Situations.- Emotion-Specificity of Neurovegetative Reactions.- Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotions.- The Valins Effect.- Appraisal of Threatening Situations.- Cognitive Balance.- Cognitive Dissonance.- Postdecision Conflicts.- Forced Compliance.- Selection of Information.- Challenged Convictions of Social Groups.- Unexpected Outcomes of Actions and Their Consequences.- Developments in Cognitive Dissonance Research.- Cognitive Appraisal Theories and Motivational Psychology.- Concluding Remarks.- 5 Motivation as a Function of Expectancy and Incentive.- Field Theory.- The Person Model.- Tension Systems in the Person Model.- Environment Model.- Environment Model: Postdictive not Predictive.- Relationship between the Two Models.- Experimental Contributions of Field Theory.- Aftereffects of Incompleted Tasks.- Complications of the Zeigarnik Effect.- Substitute Actions.- Psychological Distance and Strength of Valence.- Tolman’s Analysis of Goal-Directed Behavior.- Expectancy and Goal-Orientation.- Incentive Effects.- Latent Learning: The Distinction between Learning and Motivation.- Expectancy-Value-Matrix.- Expectancy and Incentive Conceptualized in S-R Terms.- The Early Hull.- The Middle and Late Hull.- Spence’s Extension of Hull’s Model.- More Recent Developments.- Response Reinforcement: An Unnecessary Explanatory Construct.- Walker’s Analysis of the Explanatory Concepts.- Bolles’ Cognitive Model of Incentive Motivation.- Bindra’s Quasi-Physiological Model of Incentive Motivation.- Expectancy-Value Theories.- Decision Theory.- Level of Aspiration and the Theory of Resultant Valence.- Success Expectancy and Valence.- Atkinson’s Risk-Taking Model.- Rotter’s Social Learning Theory.- Empirical Support.- Instrumentality Theory.- Vroom’s Model of Valence, Action, and Performance.- Three-Component Model of Valence, Action, and Performance.- Performance Model.- Action Outcomes and Their Consequences.- Empirical Investigations.- Critical Concluding Remarks.- 6 Volition: Implementation of Intentions.- Ach’s Psychology of the Will.- The Act of Will and the Determining Tendency.- Three Types of Volition Problems.- Persistence: Endurance of the Action Tendency until the Goal is Reached.- Initiation of Action.- Overcoming Obstacles to Action.- Kuhl’s Theory of Action Control.- Mediating Processes of Action Control.- Two Modes of Control: Action Orientation and State Orientation.- Some Empirical Findings.- The Rubicon Model of Action Phases.- Motivational vs. Volitional States of Mind.- Empirical Evidence.- Four Action Phases.- Intention Formation in the Predecisional Motivation Phase.- Action Initiation: The Task of the Preactional Volitional Phase.- Actional Volition Phase.- Postactional Motivation Phase: Evaluation.- 7 Anxiety.- General Anxiety.- Situational Incentive Effects.- Anxiety as a Trait and as a State.- Test Anxiety.- Attention Hypothesis of Test Anxiety.- Interference Effects of Self-Esteem Threatening Thoughts.- Cognitive Interferences vs. Reaction to one’s Incompetence.- Therapeutic Interventions.- 8 Achievement Motivation.- Evolutionary Psychological Perspectives.- Motive Measurement.- Thematic Apperception Test.- Measurement of Achievement Motivation.- Construction of a Thematic Coding System.- Measuring the Achievement Motive.- Measuring the Motive Tendencies “Hope for Success” and “Fear of Failure”.- TAT Instruments for both Achievement Motives.- Test Quality and Construct Characteristics of the Variables.- The Consistency Issue from the Theoretical Perspective of Measurement and Construct Validity.- Other Techniques.- Behavioral Correlates of Motive Differences.- Socio-Cultural Motive Indices and Economic Growth.- Sex-Differences and “Fear of Success”.- The Risk-Taking Model as the Dominant Research Orientation.- Motive-Dependent Valence Functions.- Choice: Maximal Product of Expectancy and Incentive.- Subjective Probability.- Level of Aspiration: Task Choice and Goal Setting.- Typical and Atypical Shifts in Level of Aspiration.- Maximizing Affect vs. Maximizing Information.- Persistence.- Feather’s Analysis of Persistence Conditions.- “Inertial Tendency” of the Unfinished.- Performance Outcomes.- School Performance.- Motivational Level and Performance Outcome: Quantity vs. Quality.- Locke’s Goal Theory: A Volitional Issue.- Efficiency of Task Performance.- Efficiency.- Empirical Evidence.- Other Approaches: Attention and Effort Control.- Cumulative Achievement.- The Double Role of Motivational Strength for Cumulative Achievements.- Empirical Evidence.- Reference Norms for Performance Outcomes.- The Preeminence of Individual Reference Norms within Motivation.- Reference-Norm Orientation.- Reference-Norm Orientation as Motivational Concept.- 9 Altruism.- Sociobiological Perspectives.- Research Direction.- Situational Conditions.- Weighting Costs and Benefits.- Diffusion of Responsibility.- Norms.- Norm of Social Responsibility.- Schwartz’ Norm-Theoretical Concept.- Norm of Reciprocity.- Evaluative Perspectives for the Donor and Recipient of Aid.- Explanatory Models.- Causal Attribution by the Help-Giver.- Causal Attribution on the Part of the Aid Recipient.- Intention Attribution on the Part of the Aid Recipient.- Intention Attribution on the Part of the Helper.- Empathy.- Empathy from the Perspective of Learning Theory.- Empathy from a Psycho-Evolutionary Perspective.- Empathy Emotions from a Motivational Perspective.- Personality Dispositions.- Towards a Motivational Model of Altruism.- Altruism within an Expectancy-Times-Value Model.- 10 Aggression.- Definitions.- Biological Perspectives.- Sociobiological Aspects.- Neurobiological Aspects.- Norms.- Reciprocity: Norm of Retaliation.- Norm of Social Responsibility and Self-Justification of its Violation.- Evolution of the Research Activity.- Drive Theories.- Frustration-Aggression Theory.- Social-Learning Theory of Aggression.- Experimental Research on Aggression.- Situational Factors in Aggressive Behavior.- Intentions.- An Attributional Analysis.- Expectations for Goal Attainment and Potential Retaliation.- Aggression-Inducing Cues.- Degree of Satisfaction Derived from Accomplished Aggression Effects.- Self-Evaluation.- Evaluation by Others.- Emotion of Anger and General State of Arousal.- Additional Sources of Arousal.- Individual Differences and Preliminary Conceptualization of the Motive.- Stability of Aggressive Behavior.- Diverse Personality Characteristics.- Towards a Motive Construct of Aggression.- Olweus’ View of the Aggression Motive.- Kornadt’s Conceptualization of the Aggression Motive.- Aggression as Action Goal: The Catharsis Hypothesis.- Specification of the Catharsis Hypothesis in Motivation Theory.- Inconclusiveness of Catharsis Experiments.- Clarification Via Direct Measures of Motive.- 11 Social Bonding: Affiliation Motivation and Intimacy Motivation.- Ontogenetic and Phylogenetic Aspects of Social Bonding.- Affiliation Motivation.- Interpersonal Attraction.- Social Anxiousness.- Need Affiliation.- Measurement of Need Affiliation.- Behavioral Correlates for TAT Measures.- Physiological and Neuroimmunological Correlates.- Questionnaires.- Intimacy Motivation.- Measurement and Behavioral Correlates of the Intimacy Motive.- Intimacy vs. Affiliation.- 12 Power Motivation.- Motive Base.- Sources of Power.- Power Behavior.- Biological Aspects.- Individual Differences in Power Behavior: Power Motive.- 1. The Acquisition of Power Sources.- 2. Competence.- 3. Power Behavior.- 4. Morality of Purpose.- 5. Fear of Consequences of Power Behavior.- 6. Preferred Spheres.- Definitions of Motive.- Veroff s Motive Measure.- Uleman’s Motive Measure.- Winter’s TAT Measure.- Typology of Developmental States of Power.- Summary.- Combination of Values and Expectancy.- Inhibited Power Motive, Immune System, and Health-Related Consequences.- Psychoimmunological Effects.- Constellations of Power, Achievement, and Affiliation.- Experimental Studies.- Power-Oriented Behavior in Criterion Groups.- Demographic Differences and Historical Change.- 13 Attribution Theory.- Causal Attribution in the Motivational Process.- Historical Review of the Issues and Related Research Areas.- Phenomenal and Causal Description in Perception.- Person Perception in Social Psychology.- Internal vs. External Control.- DeCharms Concept of “Personal Causation”.- Attribution to Reduce Cognitive Dissonance.- Bern’s Self-Perception Theory.- Attribution of Internal Arousal States.- Fundamental Positions and Models.- Causal Attribution: Need or Ability.- Control Motivation.- Causal Attribution as a Moderator of Social Relations.- Initial Issues and Models of Attribution Research.- Heider’s “naive” Analysis of Action.- Jones and Davis’ Model of Correspondent Inferences.- Trope’s Expansion of the Model.- Kelley’s Covariance Model.- Empirical Support for the Covariance Model.- Configuration Concepts: Kelley’s Causal Schemata.- Four Broader Issues.- The When Question.- The Information Bias Question.- The Expectation Question.- The “Fundamental Attribution Error”.- The Motivational Bias Question.- Self-Serving Attribution after Success and Failure.- Counterdefensive Attribution.- Self-Serving Distortion or Rational Information Processing?.- Perspective Discrepancy between Actor and Observer.- A New Conception of the Perspective Discrepancy.- Attribution Asymmetry when the Observer’s Pespective is Altered.- Attribution of Responsibility.- Motivational Biases in the Attribution of Responsibility.- 14 Attribution and Achievement Behavior.- Categories of Causal Dimensions.- Constellation of Conditions for Invoking Particular Causal Elements.- Covariance Information.- Causal Schemata.- Motive-Dependent Differences in Attributions.- Consequences of the Attribution of Success and Failure.- Predicting the Success of Others.- Location Dimension: Self-Evaluative Emotions.- Self-Evaluative Emotions: Ability vs. Effort Attribution.- Types of Self-Evaluative Emotions.- Control Dimension: Evaluation of Others and Self Affect.- Causal Dimensions and Emotions.- Emotions Following Performance Outcomes.- Effects on Behavior.- Task Choice.- Searching for Feedback.- Persistence.- Performance Outcomes.- Self-Evaluation a Motivation Principle.- Achievement Motive as a Self-Evaluating System.- Empirical Evidence for the Self-Evaluation Model.- Application: “Attribution Therapy”.- Personal Causation.- Acquisition of Attribution Patterns.- Contributions of Attribution Theory to Achievement Motivation Theory.- 15 Expanded Perspectives.- Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.- Diverse Conceptions of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation.- Drive without Drive Reduction.- Purposelessness.- Optimal Arousal Level or Incongruence.- Self-Determination.- Joyous Absorption in an Activity.- Thematic Similarity (Endogeny) between Action and Action Goal.- Evaluation of the Various Conceptions.- Undermining Intrinsic Motivation Through Extrinsic Reinforcement.- Do Reinforcement Programs Undermine Intrinsic Motivation?.- Intrinsic and Extrinsic Incentives in Expectancy-Value Models.- Evaluation of the Present State of Research.- An Expanded Motivation Model.- Expectancy.- Incentives.- The Expanded Model’s Crucial Motivation Parameters.- Motivational Shifts: Atkinson and Birch’s “Dynamic Action Model”.- Action Shift: The “Dynamic Action Model”.- Explanatory Value of the Dynamic Action Model.- An Empirical Test of the Model.- Learned Helplessness.- The Achievement-Focused, Experimental Paradigm.- Improvement in Place of Decrement.- Two Possible Explanations of Improved Performance.- An Attributional Style that Promotes Generalization: The Stable, Global, Internal Pattern.- Attributional Style as a Personality Variable.- Generalization of Helplessness.- Attributional Style and Depression.- The “Cognitive Deficit” among the Helpless and Depressives.- Helplessness and Action Control.- Functional Deficit.- Functional Deficit vs. Stable, Global Attributional Style.- The Genesis of Helplessness.- Self-Concepts.- Traditional Self-Concept Research.- Turning Self-Concepts into Dynamic Variables.- Self-Concept Variables in the Achievement-Motive Research.- Self-Concept of Ability and Calculation of Effort.- Task Choice, Persistence and Obtaining Feedback.- Self-Related Cognition During Task Evaluation.- Motive-Linked Self-Concept of Ability.- Name Index.