Hormone Toxicity in the Newborn

ISBN-13: 9783642837968 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 334 str.

Fred A. Kincl

Opis

The account of "neonatal sterilization" is the story of the advocates of direct effect of steroids on the gonads and those who believed in the indirect influence, mediated through the hypothalamus and/or the pituitary gland. As often happens in biology, both convictions represent the same image seen from different perspectives. Prof DC Johnson (Kansas City, KS) reminisced the beginning of the story in a letter to me. I am paraphrasing parts of the letter with his permission. "As a starting point we could pick the life-long research of Emil Steinach ... " Steinach recognized the influence of testes on the develop ment of accessory sex organs in 1894, described virilization of females and feminization of males in 1913, and identified the controlling influence of the hypophysis on the gonads in 1928. He reviewed his work in a book Sex and Life, Forty Years of Biological and Medical Experience (E Steinach and L Loebe ; Faber and Faber, London, 1940). He got on the wrong road in later years and that is the reason everybody seems to have forgotten him. He presented his hypothesis that estrogen has a direct effect upon the testes, i. e. hormone antagonism, at the 1st International Congress on Sex Research in 1926."

Spis treści

1 Introduction.- 2 Control of Reproductive Function in the Adult.- 2.1 The Reproductive Cycle — An Overview.- 2.1.1 Marsupials.- 2.1.2 Eutherians.- 2.1.2.1 Cyclic Breeders.- 2.1.2.2 Seasonal Breeders.- 2.1.2.3 Induced Ovulators.- 2.2 Patterns of Hormone Release.- 2.2.1 Males.- 2.2.2 Females.- 2.2.2.1 Rodents.- 2.2.2.2 Primates.- 2.2.3 Seasonal Breeders.- 2.2.4 Annual Cycles.- 2.3 Neuroendocrine Control of Reproduction.- 2.3.1 Neural Control of Gonadotropin Release.- 2.3.1.1 Regulation of Prolactin Function.- 2.3.1.2 Endorphins and Enkephalins.- 2.3.1.3 Steroid Hormones.- 2.3.1.4 Other Peptide Hormones.- 2.3.2 Neural Pathways Regulating Reproduction.- 2.3.3 Photic Stimulation.- 2.3.3.1 Location of the Biological Clock.- 2.3.3.2 Contribution of the Pineal Gland.- 2.3.4 Olfactory Control.- 2.3.5 Auditory Cues.- 2.4 The Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis.- 2.4.1 The Hypothalamus.- 2.4.1.1 Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH).- 2.4.1.2 Peptides Similar to GnRH.- 2.4.2 The Pituitary Gland.- 2.4.2.1 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).- 2.4.2.2 Luteinizing Hormone (LH).- 2.4.2.3 Prolactin (PRL).- 2.4.2.4 Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (Melanotropen, MSH).- 2.4.3 The Gonads.- 2.4.3.1 Males.- 2.4.3.2 Females.- 2.4.3.3 Biosynthesis of Steroid Hormones.- 2.4.4 Nonsteroid Hormones.- 2.4.4.1 Inhibin.- 2.4.4.2 Activins.- 2.4.4.3 Follicostatin.- 2.4.4.4 Prostaglandins.- 2.4.4.5 Other Factors.- 2.5 Activity of Steroid Hormones.- 2.5.1 Stimulatory and Inhibitory Effects.- 2.5.1.1 Androgens.- 2.5.1.2 Anabolic Agents.- 2.5.1.3 Estrogens.- 2.5.1.4 Progesterone.- 2.5.2 Feedback.- 2.5.2.1 Males.- 2.5.2.2 Females.- 2.5.3 Synergism.- 2.5.3.1 Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone.- 2.5.3.2 Pituitary Hormones.- 2.5.3.3 Gonadal Hormones.- 2.5.3.4 Other Hormones and Factors.- 2.6 Hormone Receptors.- 2.6.1 Nature of Receptor Molecules.- 2.6.1.1 Receptor Interaction.- 2.6.1.2 Sex Differences.- 2.6.1.3 Receptors in Neonatal and Aged Animals.- 2.6.2 Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone.- 2.6.3 Pituitary Hormones.- 2.6.3.1 Follicle Stimulating Hormone.- 2.6.3.2 Luteinizing Hormone.- 2.6.4 Androgen Receptors.- 2.6.4.1 Regulation of Formation.- 2.6.5 Estrogen Receptors.- 2.6.5.1 Structure.- 2.6.5.2 Specificity of Estrogen Receptors.- 2.6.5.3 Regulation of Formation.- 2.6.6 Progesterone Receptors.- 2.6.6.1 Structure.- 2.6.6.2 Regulation of Formation.- 2.7 Interactions with Other Hormonal Systems.- 2.7.1 Adrenal Function.- 2.7.1.1 Males.- 2.7.1.2 Females.- 2.7.2 Thyroid.- 2.7.2.1 Hypothyroidism.- 2.7.2.2 Hyperthyroidism.- 2.8 Reproduction and the Immune Response.- 2.8.1 Sex Dimorphism.- 2.8.2 Thymus.- 2.8.2.1 Effects of Thymectomy.- 2.8.2.2 Effects of Hormones.- 3 Teratogenicity of Hormones in Utero.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Steroid Hormones: Malformation of the External Genitalia and Interference with the Reproductive Function.- 3.2.1 Gonadal Hormones.- 3.2.1.1 Effects on Genetic Males.- 3.2.1.2 Effects on Genetic Females.- 3.2.2 Synthetic Steroid Hormones.- 3.2.2.1 Ethinyl Estradiol (EE).- 3.2.2.2 Oral Contraceptives.- 3.2.3 Diethylstilbestrol (DES).- 3.2.3.1 Effects in Animals.- 3.2.3.2 Effects on Humans.- 3.2.4 Adrenocortical Hormones and Stress.- 3.2.4.1 Effects in Animals.- 3.2.4.2 Effects on Humans.- 3.3 Other Effects of Hormones.- 3.3.1 Induction of Cancer.- 3.3.1.1 Reproductive Tract.- 3.3.1.2 Mammary Glands.- 3.3.2 Other Teratological Effects.- 3.3.2.1 Mammary Glands.- 3.3.2.2 Growth and Bone Structure.- 3.3.2.3 Nervous System.- 3.3.2.4 Immune System.- 3.4 Nonsteroidal Agents.- 3.4.1 Chorionic Gonadotropin.- 3.4.2 Prostaglandins.- 3.4.3 Thyroid Hormones.- 3.4.3.1 In Animals.- 3.4.3.2 In Humans.- 3.4.4 Insulin.- 3.4.5 Melatonin.- 3.4.6 Vitamins.- 3.4.7 CNS Active Drugs.- 4 Effects of Steroid Hormones in the Neonate.- A. Androgens and Estrogens.- 4.1 Effects on Reproductive Function in Rats.- 4.1.1 Testosterone.- 4.1.1.1 Females.- 4.1.1.2 Males.- 4.1.2 Other Androgens.- 4.1.3 Estradiol.- 4.1.3.1 Females.- 4.1.3.2 Males.- 4.1.4 Other Estrogens.- 4.2 Effects of Estrogens During Lactation.- 4.2.1 Transfer of Steroids to Milk.- 4.2.1.1 Effects on Humans.- 4.3 Effects of Androgens and Estrogens on Reproduction in Other Species.- 4.3.1 Mice.- 4.3.1.1 Females.- 4.3.1.2 Males.- 4.3.2 Guinea Pigs.- 4.3.3 Hamsters.- 4.3.4 Rabbits.- 4.3.5 Ferrets.- 4.3.6 Sheep.- 4.3.7 Pigs.- 4.3.8 Dogs.- 4.3.9 Bovine.- 4.3.10 Primates.- 4.4 Tissue Responses.- 4.4.1 Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis.- 4.4.1.1 Androgenized Animals.- 4.4.2 Restoration of Gonadal Function.- 4.4.2.1 Androgenized Animals.- 4.4.2.2 Estrogenized Animals.- 4.4.3 Peripheral Organs — The Carcinogenic Effect.- 4.4.3.1 Androgenized Animals.- 4.4.3.2 Estrogenized Animals.- 4.4.4 Uptake in Various Tissues.- 4.4.4.1 Androgenized Animals.- 4.4.4.2 Estrogenized Animals.- 4.4.5 Hormone Receptors.- 4.4.5.1 Brain Receptors.- 4.4.5.2 Receptors in Other Tissues.- 4.4.6 Steroid Biosynthesis and Metabolism.- 4.4.6.1 Androgenized Animals.- 4.4.6.2 Estrogenized Animals.- 4.4.6.3 Feminized Males.- 4.5 Other than Reproductive Effects.- 4.5.1 Somatic Growth.- 4.5.1.1 Growth Hormone.- 4.5.2 Brain Development.- 4.5.3 Mammary Glands.- 4.5.4 Other Endocrine Functions.- 4.5.4.1 The Adrenals.- 4.5.4.2 The Thyroid.- 4.5.5 Effects on Metabolizing Enzymes.- 4.5.5.1 Adrenal Enzymes.- 4.5.5.2 Liver Enzymes.- 4.5.6 Increased Sensitivity to Carcinogens.- B. Pregnanes.- 4.6 Adrenocortical Hormones.- 4.6.1 Influences on Reproduction.- 4.6.2 Other than Reproductive Effects.- 4.6.2.1 Toxic Effects.- 4.6.2.2 Body Growth.- 4.6.2.3 Adrenocortical Steroids in Blood.- 4.6.3 Stress.- 4.6.3.1 Response to Stress.- 4.7 Progesterone.- 4.8 Other Pregnane Derivatives.- 4.8.1 Estrane Derivatives with Progestational Activity.- C. Protection Against Steroid Hormone Damage.- 4.9 Females.- 4.9.1 Progesterone.- 4.9.1.1 Synthetic Progestational Agents.- 4.9.2 Androstanes.- 4.9.3 Diverse Agents.- 4.9.3.1 Antiestrogens.- 4.9.3.2 Retinoids.- 4.10 Males.- 4.10.1 Testosterone.- 4.10.2 Gonadotropins.- 4.10.3 Thymocytes.- D. Lymphoid System.- 4.11 Role of the Thymus.- 4.11.1 Mice.- 4.11.2 Rats.- 5 Nonsteroidal Agents.- 5.1 Hormones.- 5.1.1 Gonadotropins.- 5.1.1.1 Rats.- 5.1.1.2 Guinea Pigs.- 5.1.1.3 Mice.- 5.1.2 Prolactin.- 5.1.3 Thyroid Hormones.- 5.1.3.1 TRH and TSH.- 5.1.3.2 Induced Hyperthyroidism.- 5.1.3.3 Induced Hypothyroidism.- 5.1.4 Diethylstilbestrol.- 5.1.4.1 Effects in Females.- 5.1.4.2 Effects in Males.- 5.1.5 Antiestrogens.- 5.1.5.1 Clomiphene.- 5.1.5.2 Tamoxifen.- 5.1.5.3 Nafoxidene.- 5.1.6 Growth Hormone.- 5.1.7 Melatonin.- 5.1.8 Prostaglandins.- 5.1.9 Insect Hormones.- 5.1.10 Plant Hormones.- 5.2 Psychotropic Drugs.- 5.2.1 Chlorpromazine.- 5.2.2 Reserpine.- 5.2.3 Phenobarbital.- 5.3 Various Agents.- 5.3.1 Amino Acids.- 5.3.1.1 Monosodium Glutamate.- 5.3.2 Urethane.- 5.3.3 Insecticides.- 6 Psychosexual Orientation.- 6.1 Behavior Patterns in the Adult.- 6.1.1 Males.- 6.1.2 Females.- 6.1.3 Copulatory Tests.- 6.1.4 Specificity of the Response.- 6.1.5 Neural Pathways Regulating Mating Behavior.- 6.1.5.1 Males.- 6.1.5.2 Females.- 6.2 Influence of Sex Hormones During Fetal Life.- 6.2.1 Behavior Changes in Animals.- 6.2.2 Psychological Changes in Humans.- 6.2.2.1 Steroid Hormones.- 6.2.2.2 Stress.- 6.3 Changes Enduced by Sex Hormones During the Neonatal Period.- 6.3.1 Androgenized Animals.- 6.3.1.1 Rats.- 6.3.1.2 Mice.- 6.3.1.3 Hamsters.- 6.3.1.4 Ferrets.- 6.3.2 Estrogenized Animals.- 6.3.2.1 Rats.- 6.3.2.2 Mice.- 6.3.2.3 Hamsters.- 6.4 Regulation of Mating Behavior.- 6.4.1 Bisexual Brain Hypothesis.- 6.4.2 Aromatization Hypothesis.- 7 Author’s Overview.- 7.1 Behavoir.- 7.2 The Brain.- 7.3 The Pituitary Gland.- 7.4 The Gonads.- 7.4.1 Transplantation Experiments.- 7.5 Other Endocrine Systems.- 7.6 Direct Effects.- 7.7 Conclusions.