Fundamentals of Materials Science and Engineering

ISBN-13: 9781119820543 / Angielski / Miękka / 2022

David G. Rethwisch

Spis treści

List of Symbols xix1. Introduction 1Learning Objectives 21.1 Historical Perspective 21.2 Materials Science and Engineering: Need of Its Study 3Case Study 1.1--Cargo Ship Failures 61.3 Classification of Materials 7Case Study 1.2--Carbonated Beverage Containers 121.4 Advanced Materials 141.5 Modern Materials' Needs 17Summary 18References 18Questions and Problems 192. Atomic Structure and Interatomic Bonding20Learning Objectives 212.1 Introduction 21Atomic Structure 212.2 Fundamental Concepts 212.3 Electrons in Atoms 242.4 The Periodic Table 30Atomic Bonding in Solids 322.5 Bonding Forces and Energies 322.6 Primary Interatomic Bonds 342.7 Secondary Bonding or van der Waals Bonding 41Materials of Importance 2.1--Water (Its Volume Expansion upon Freezing) 442.8 Mixed Bonding 452.9 Molecules 462.10 Bonding Type-Material Classification Correlations 46Summary 47Equation Summary 48List of Symbols 48Important Terms and Concepts 49References 49Questions and Problems 493. Structures of Metals and Ceramics 52Learning Objectives 533.1 Introduction 53Crystal Structures 543.2 Fundamental Concepts 543.3 Unit Cells 553.4 Metallic Crystal Structures 553.5 Density Computations--Metals 613.6 Ceramic Crystal Structures 623.7 Density Computations--Ceramics 693.8 Silicate Ceramics 703.9 Carbon 733.10 Polymorphism and Allotropy 783.11 Crystal Systems 78Material of Importance 3.1--Tin (Its Allotropic Transformation) 80Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes 813.12 Point Coordinates 813.13 Crystallographic Directions 833.14 Crystallographic Planes 903.15 Linear and Planar Densities 963.16 Close-Packed Crystal Structures 97Crystalline and Noncrystalline Materials 1003.17 Single Crystals 1003.18 Polycrystalline Materials 1013.19 Anisotropy 1013.20 X-Ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures 1033.21 Noncrystalline Solids 108Summary 110Equation Summary 112List of Symbols 113Important Terms and Concepts 114References 114Questions and Problems 1144. Polymer Structures 123Learning Objectives 1244.1 Introduction 1244.2 Hydrocarbon Molecules 1244.3 Polymer Molecules 1274.4 The Chemistry of Polymer Molecules 1274.5 Molecular Weight 1314.6 Molecular Shape 1354.7 Molecular Structure 1374.8 Molecular Configurations 1384.9 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers 1414.10 Copolymers 1424.11 Polymer Crystallinity 1434.12 Polymer Crystals 147Summary 149Equation Summary 150List of Symbols 151Important Terms and Concepts 151References 151Questions and Problems 1525. Composites 155Learning Objectives 1565.1 Introduction 156Particle-Reinforced Composites 1585.2 Large-Particle Composites 1595.3 Dispersion-Strengthened Composites 162Fiber-Reinforced Composites 1635.4 Influence of Fiber Length 1635.5 Influence of Fiber Orientation and Concentration 1645.6 The Fiber Phase 1735.7 The Matrix Phase 1745.8 Polymer-Matrix Composites 1755.9 Metal-Matrix Composites 1805.10 Ceramic-Matrix Composites 1825.11 Carbon-Carbon Composites 1835.12 Hybrid Composites 1845.13 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites 184Structural Composites 1885.14 Laminar Composites 1885.15 Sandwich Panels 190Case Study 5.1--Use of Composites in the Boeing 787 Dreamliner 1925.16 Nanocomposites 193Summary 195Equation Summary 198List of Symbols 199Important Terms and Concepts 199References 199Questions and Problems 2006. Imperfections in Solids 204Learning Objectives 2056.1 Introduction 205Point Defects 2066.2 Point Defects in Metals 2066.3 Point Defects in Ceramics 2076.4 Impurities in Solids 2106.5 Point Defects in Polymers 2156.6 Specification of Composition 215Miscellaneous Imperfections 2196.7 Dislocations--Linear Defects 2196.8 Interfacial Defects 222Materials of Importance 6.1--Catalysts (and Surface Defects) 2256.9 Bulk or Volume Defects 2266.10 Atomic Vibrations 226Microscopic Examination 2276.11 Basic Concepts of Microscopy 2276.12 Microscopic Techniques 2286.13 Grain-Size Determination 232Summary 235Equation Summary 237List of Symbols 237Important Terms and Concepts 238References 238Questions and Problems 2387. Diffusion 243Learning Objectives 2447.1 Introduction 2447.2 Diffusion Mechanisms 2457.3 Fick's First Law 2467.4 Fick's Second Law--Nonsteady-State Diffusion 2487.5 Factors that Influence Diffusion 2527.6 Diffusion in Semiconducting Materials 258Materials of Importance 7.1--Aluminum for Integrated Circuit Interconnects 2617.7 Other Diffusion Paths 2627.8 Diffusion in Ionic and Polymeric Materials 262Summary 264Equation Summary 266List of Symbols 266Important Terms and Concepts 266References 267Questions and Problems 2678. Mechanical Properties 272Learning Objectives 2738.1 Introduction 2738.2 Concepts of Stress and Strain 274Elastic Deformation 2788.3 Stress-Strain Behavior 2788.4 Anelasticity 2818.5 Elastic Properties of Materials 282Mechanical Behavior--Metals 2848.6 Tensile Properties 2858.7 True Stress and Strain 2928.8 Elastic Recovery after Plastic Deformation 2958.9 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations 295Mechanical Behavior--Ceramics 2968.10 Flexural Strength 2968.11 Elastic Behavior 2978.12 Influence of Porosity on the Mechanical Properties of Ceramics 297Mechanical Behavior--Polymers 2998.13 Stress-Strain Behavior 2998.14 Macroscopic Deformation 3018.15 Viscoelastic Deformation 302Hardness and Other Mechanical Property Considerations 3068.16 Hardness 3068.17 Hardness of Ceramic Materials 3078.18 Tear Strength and Hardness of Polymers 3128.19 Hardness at Elevated Temperature 313Property Variability and Design/Safety Factors 3138.20 Variability of Material Properties 3138.21 Design/Safety Factors 315Summary 319Equation Summary 322List of Symbols 323Important Terms and Concepts 324References 324Questions and Problems 3249. Dislocation, Deformation, and Strengthening Mechanisms 333Learning Objectives 3349.1 Introduction 334Deformation Mechanisms for Metals 3349.2 Historical 3359.3 Basic Concepts of Dislocations 3359.4 Characteristics of Dislocations 3379.5 Slip Systems 3389.6 Slip in Single Crystals 3409.7 Plastic Deformation of Polycrystalline Metals 3439.8 Deformation by Twinning 345Mechanisms of Strengthening in Metals 3469.9 Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction 3469.10 Solid-Solution Strengthening 3489.11 Strain Hardening 349Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth 3529.12 Recovery 3529.13 Recrystallization 3539.14 Grain Growth 357Deformation Mechanisms for Ceramic Materials 3599.15 Crystalline Ceramics 3599.16 Noncrystalline Ceramics 359Mechanisms of Deformation and for Strengthening of Polymers 3609.17 Deformation of Semicrystalline Polymers 3609.18 Factors that Influence the Mechanical Properties of Semicrystalline Polymers 362Materials of Importance 9.1--Shrink-Wrap Polymer Films 3659.19 Deformation of Elastomers 366Summary 368Equation Summary 371List of Symbols 371Important Terms and Concepts 371References 372Questions and Problems 37210. Failure 378Learning Objectives 37910.1 Introduction 379Fracture 38010.2 Fundamentals of Fracture 38010.3 Ductile Fracture 38010.4 Brittle Fracture 38210.5 Principles of Fracture Mechanics 38410.6 Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture 39410.7 Brittle Fracture of Ceramics 39510.8 Fracture of Polymers 39910.9 Fracture Toughness Testing 401Fatigue 40510.10 Cyclic Stresses 40610.11 The S-N Curve 40710.12 Fatigue in Polymeric Materials 41210.13 Crack Initiation and Propagation 41310.14 Factors that Affect Fatigue Life 41510.15 Thermal and Corrosion Fatigue 41710.16 Goodman Diagram 41810.17 Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate 420Creep 42310.18 Mechanical Behavior Dependent on Time 42310.19 Stress and Temperature Effects 42410.20 Data Extrapolation Methods 42710.21 High-Temperature Material 42810.22 Creep in Ceramic and Polymeric Materials 429Summary 429Equation Summary 432List of Symbols 433Important Terms and Concepts 434References 434Questions and Problems 43411. Phase Diagrams 441Learning Objectives 44211.1 Introduction 442Definitions and Basic Concepts 44211.2 Solubility Limit 44311.3 Phases 44411.4 Microstructure 44411.5 Phase Equilibria 44411.6 One-Component (or Unary) Phase Diagrams 445Binary Phase Diagrams 44611.7 Binary Isomorphous Systems 44711.8 Interpretation of Phase Diagrams 44911.9 Development of Microstructure in Isomorphous Alloys 45311.10 Mechanical Properties of Isomorphous Alloys 45611.11 Binary Eutectic Systems 45611.12 Development of Microstructure in Eutectic Alloys 462Materials of Importance 11.1--Lead-Free Solders 46311.13 Equilibrium Diagrams Having Intermediate Phases or Compounds 46911.14 Eutectoid and Peritectic Reactions 47211.15 Peritectoid and Monotectic Reactions 47311.16 Congruent Phase Transformations 47511.17 Ceramic Phase Diagrams 47611.18 Ternary Phase Diagrams 47911.19 The Gibbs Phase Rule 480The Iron-Carbon System 48211.20 The Iron-Iron Carbide (Fe-Fe 3 C) Phase Diagram 48211.21 Development of Microstructure in Iron- Carbon Alloys 48511.22 The Influence of Other Alloying Elements 49211.23 Spinodal Decomposition 493Summary 496Equation Summary 498List of Symbols 499Important Terms and Concepts 499References 500Questions and Problems 50012. Phase Transformations 507Learning Objectives 50812.1 Introduction 508Phase Transformations in Metals 50812.2 Basic Concepts 50912.3 The Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Phase Transformations 50912.4 Metastable Versus Equilibrium States 520Microstructural and Property Changes in Iron-Carbon Alloys 52112.5 Isothermal Transformation Diagrams 52112.6 Continuous-Cooling Transformation Diagrams 53112.7 Mechanical Behavior of Iron-Carbon Alloys 53412.8 Tempered Martensite 53912.9 Review of Phase Transformations and Mechanical Properties for Iron-Carbon Alloys 541Materials of Importance 12.1--Shape- Memory Alloys 544Precipitation Hardening 54712.10 Heat Treatments 54712.11 Mechanism of Hardening 54912.12 Martempering and Austempering 55112.13 Surface Hardening (Case-Hardening Process) 55212.14 Vacuum and Plasma Hardening 554Crystallization, Melting, and Glass Transition Phenomena in Polymers 55412.15 Crystallization 55512.16 Melting 55612.17 The Glass Transition 55612.18 Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 55612.19 Factors that Influence Melting and Glass Transition Temperatures 557Summary 560Equation Summary 562List of Symbols 563Important Terms and Concepts 563References 563Questions and Problems 56413. Electrical Properties of Materials 571Learning Objectives 57213.1 Introduction 572Electrical Conduction 57313.2 Ohm's Law 57313.3 Electrical Conductivity 57313.4 Electronic and Ionic Conduction 57413.5 Energy Band Structures in Solids 57413.6 Conduction in Terms of Band and Atomic Bonding Models 57713.7 Electron Mobility 57913.8 Electrical Resistivity of Metals 58013.9 Electrical Characteristics of Commercial Alloys 583Semiconductivity 58313.10 Intrinsic Semiconduction 58313.11 Extrinsic Semiconduction 58613.12 The Temperature Dependence of Carrier Concentration 58913.13 Factors that Affect Carrier Mobility 59113.14 The Hall Effect 59513.15 Semiconductor Devices 597Electrical Conduction in Ionic Ceramics and in Polymers 60313.16 Conduction in Ionic Materials 60313.17 Electrical Properties of Polymers 604Dielectric Behavior 60513.18 Capacitance 60513.19 Field Vectors and Polarization 60713.20 Types of Polarization 61013.21 Frequency Dependence of the Dielectric Constant 61113.22 Dielectric Strength 61213.23 Dielectric Materials 612Other Electrical Characteristics of Materials 61313.24 Ferroelectricity 61313.25 Piezoelectricity 614Materials of Importance 13.1-- Piezoelectric Ceramic Ink-Jet Printer Heads 61513.26 Electrostriction 616Summary 617Equation Summary 619List of Symbols 620Important Terms and Concepts 621References 621Questions and Problems 62214. Types and Applications of Materials628Learning Objectives 62914.1 Introduction 629Types of Metal Alloys 62914.2 Ferrous Alloys 62914.3 Nonferrous Alloys 642Materials of Importance 14.1--Metal Alloys Used for Euro Coins 652Types of Ceramics 65314.4 Glasses 65414.5 Glass-Ceramics 65414.6 Clay Products 65614.7 Refractories 65614.8 Abrasives 65914.9 Cements 66114.10 Ceramic Biomaterials 66214.11 Carbons 66314.12 Advanced Ceramics 666Types of Polymers 66814.13 Plastics 668Materials of Importance 14.2--Phenolic Billiard Balls 67014.14 Elastomers 67114.15 Fibers 67314.16 Miscellaneous Applications 67314.17 Polymeric Biomaterials 67514.18 Advanced Polymeric Materials 677Summary 680Important Terms and Concepts 683References 683Questions and Problems 68315. Processing of Engineering Materials686Learning Objectives 68715.1 Introduction 687Fabrication of Metals 68715.2 Forming Operations 68815.3 Casting 68915.4 Miscellaneous Techniques 69115.5 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) 692Thermal Processing of Metals 69615.6 Annealing Processes 69715.7 Heat Treatment of Steels 699Fabrication of Ceramic Materials 71115.8 Fabrication and Processing of Glasses and Glass-Ceramics 71115.9 Fabrication and Processing of Clay Products 71615.10 Powder Pressing 72115.11 Tape Casting 72315.12 3D Printing of Ceramic Materials 723Synthesis and Fabrication of Polymers 72515.13 Polymerization 72515.14 Polymer Additives 72815.15 Forming Techniques for Plastics 72915.16 Fabrication of Elastomers 73215.17 Fabrication of Fibers and Films 73215.18 3D Printing of Polymers 733Summary 736Important Terms and Concepts 739References 739Questions and Problems 74016. Corrosion and Degradation 743Learning Objectives 74416.1 Introduction 744Corrosion of Metals 74516.2 Electrochemical Considerations 74516.3 Corrosion Kinetics 75116.4 Prediction of Corrosion Rates 75316.5 Passivity 75916.6 Environmental Effects 76016.7 Forms of Corrosion 76116.8 Corrosion Environments 76816.9 Corrosion Prevention 76916.10 Oxidation 771Corrosion of Ceramic Materials 775Degradation of Polymers 77516.11 Swelling and Dissolution 77516.12 Bond Rupture 77716.13 Weathering 779Summary 779Equation Summary 781List of Symbols 782Important Terms and Concepts 783References 783Questions and Problems 78317. Thermal Properties 787Learning Objectives 78817.1 Introduction 78817.2 Heat Capacity 78817.3 Thermal Expansion 792Materials of Importance 17.1--Invar and Other Low-Expansion Alloys 79417.4 Thermal Conductivity 79517.5 Thermal Stresses 798Summary 800Equation Summary 801List of Symbols 802Important Terms and Concepts 802References 802Questions and Problems 80218. Magnetic Properties 805Learning Objectives 80618.1 Introduction 80618.2 Basic Concepts 80618.3 Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism 81018.4 Ferromagnetism 81218.5 Antiferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism 81318.6 The Influence of Temperature on Magnetic Behavior 81718.7 Domains and Hysteresis 81818.8 Magnetic Anisotropy 82118.9 Soft Magnetic Materials 823Materials of Importance 18.1--An Iron-Silicon Alloy That Is Used in Transformer Cores 82318.10 Hard Magnetic Materials 82518.11 Magnetic Storage 82818.12 Superconductivity 831Summary 834Equation Summary 836List of Symbols 836Important Terms and Concepts 837References 837Questions and Problems 83719. Optical Properties 840Learning Objectives 84119.1 Introduction 841Basic Concepts 84119.2 Electromagnetic Radiation 84119.3 Light Interactions with Solids 84319.4 Atomic and Electronic Interactions 844Optical Properties of Metals 845Optical Properties of Nonmetals 84619.5 Refraction 84619.6 Reflection 84819.7 Absorption 84919.8 Transmission 85219.9 Color 85219.10 Opacity and Translucency in Insulators 854Applications of Optical Phenomena 85519.11 Luminescence 85519.12 Photoconductivity 855Materials of Importance 19.1--Light-Emitting Diodes 85619.13 Lasers 85819.14 Optical Fibers in Communications 862Summary 864Equation Summary 866List of Symbols 867Important Terms and Concepts 867References 867Questions and Problems 86820. Economic, Environmental, and Societal Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 870Learning Objectives 87120.1 Introduction 871Economic Considerations 87120.2 Component Design 87220.3 Materials 87220.4 Manufacturing Techniques 873Environmental and Societal Considerations 87320.5 Recycling Issues in Materials Science and Engineering 876Materials of Importance 20.1--Biodegradable and Biorenewable Polymers/Plastics 880Summary 882References 883Questions and Problems 883Appendix A The International System of Units (SI) A-1A.1: The SI Base Units A-1A.2: Some SI Derived Units A-2A.3: SI Multiple and Submultiple Prefixes A-2A.4: Unit Abbreviations A-3A.5: Unit Conversion Factors A-3Appendix B Properties of Selected Engineering Materials A-5B.1: Density A-5B.2: Modulus of Elasticity A-9B.3: Poisson's Ratio A-12B.4: Strength and Ductility A-14B.5: Plane Strain Fracture Toughness A-19B.6: Linear Coefficient of Thermal Expansion A-20B.7: Thermal Conductivity A-24B.8: Specific Heat A-27B.9: Electrical Resistivity A-30B.10: Metal Alloy Compositions A-33Appendix C Costs and Relative Costs for Selected Engineering Materials A-35Appendix D Repeat Unit Structures for Common Polymers A-40Appendix E Glass Transition and Melting Temperatures for Common Polymeric Materials A-45Appendix F Characteristics of Selected Elements A-46Appendix G Values of Selected Physical Constants A-47Appendix H Periodic Table of the ElementsA-48Glossary G-1Answers to Selected Problems (available online)Index I-1