Fuel Additives: Chemistry and Technology

ISBN-13: 9781119707417 / Angielski / Twarda / 2022 / 384 str.

Robert D. Tack

Spis treści

Acknowledgements xiPreface xiiAbbreviations xv1 Fuels and Fuel Additives - Overview 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Refinery Operations and Processes 21.2.1 Distillation 21.2.2 Balancing Production to the Demand Barrel 51.2.3 Catalytic Conversions 111.2.4 Alkylation 111.2.5 Coking 121.3 Finished Fuels 121.3.1 Gasoline 131.3.2 Middle Distillates 161.3.2.1 Jet Fuel 171.3.2.2 Diesel Fuel 181.3.2.3 Heating Oils 201.3.2.4 Marine Diesel Fuels and Power Generation 201.3.4 Coal, Gas or Biomass to Liquids 221.3.5 Biofuels 221.4 Fuel Additives - Value and Need 231.4.1 Value 231.4.2 Need 241.5 The Application of Fuel Additives 261.6 Fuel Quality, Taxation, Dyes and Markers 301.6.1 The Need for Quality and Brand Recognition 301.6.2 The Introduction and Growth of Fuel Taxation 301.6.3 The Use and Chemistries of Fuel Dyes 331.6.4 Invisible Fuel Markers 361.7 Future Need for Fuel Additives 392 Fuel Stabilisers: Antioxidants and Metal Deactivators 512.1 Introduction 512.2 Detailed Problems 522.2.1 Oxidative Stability of Jet Fuels 522.2.2 Oxidative Stability of Gasoline 542.2.3 Oxidative Stability of Diesel Fuel 542.3 Tests of Oxidative Stability 552.3.1 Jet Fuel Stability Tests 552.3.2 Gasoline Stability Tests 562.3.3 Diesel Fuel Stability Tests 572.4 Stability Additives: Antioxidants and Metal Deactivators 582.4.1 Antioxidants 582.4.2 Metal Deactivators (Mdas) 612.4.3 Thermal Stability Additives 612.5 Mechanisms 622.5.1 Hydrogen Atom Abstraction from Hydrocarbon Molecules 622.5.2 Initiation 652.5.3 Propagation 652.5.4 Termination 672.5.5 Formation of Difunctional Molecules during Autoxidation 682.5.6 Mechanisms of Antioxidant Action 683 Fuel Detergents 773.1 Introduction 773.2 Detailed Problems 783.2.1 Gasoline Engines 783.2.2 Fuel Injector Deposits in Diesel Engines 803.2.3 Heating Oils 823.2.4 Jet Engines 823.3 What Detergents Do 833.4 The Chemistries of Fuel Detergents 863.4.1 General Background 863.4.2 Detail 903.4.2a Poly-IsoButylene, PIB 903.4.2b PIBSA 913.4.2c PIBSA-PAM 923.4.2d PIB-Amine 963.4.2e Mannich Detergent 993.4.2f Imidazoline 1003.4.2g PIBSA/Polyols 1013.4.2h Polyether Amines 1013.4.2i Quaternised Detergents 1023.4.2j Carrier Fluid 1043.4.2k Jet Fuel Detergent 1053.5 Mechanism of Detergency Action 1063.5.1 Chemical Identities of Deposits 1063.5.1a Oxygenated Hydrocarbons 1063.5.1b Zinc Deposits 1103.5.2 The Action of Detergents 1113.5.3 Stabilisation of Dispersed Deposit or Particulate Material by Fuel Detergents in Gasoline and Middle Distillates 1143.5.4 Chemical Reactions of Dispersants with Deposits 1164 Cold Flow Improvers 1294.1 Introduction 1294.2 Detailed Problems and What Cold Flow Improvers Do 1314.2.1 Diesel Vehicle Fuel Systems and Operability 1324.2.2 Cloud Point Limitation 1334.2.3 Pour Point Limitation 1344.2.4 Diesel Vehicle Operability and the Cold Filter Plugging Point 1354.2.5 Cold Flow Improvement and Fuel Variations 1384.2.6 Cloud Point Depression 1444.2.7 Wax Anti-Settling 1454.3 The Organic Chemistry of Wax Crystal Modifying Cold Flow Improvers 1494.3.1 Linear Ethylene Copolymers 1524.3.2 The Free Radical Polymerisation Process 1544.3.3 Comb Polymers 1594.3.3a Free Radical Comb Polymers 1594.3.3b Poly-1-Alkenes 1614.3.4 Polar Nitrogen Compounds - Long Chain Alkyl-Amine Derivatives 1624.3.5 Nucleators 1644.3.6 Alkylphenol-Formaldehyde Condensates (Apfcs) 1684.4 Mechanism of Wax Crystallization and Modification 1704.4.1 Wax Crystal Compositions and Structures 1704.4.1a Compositions 1704.4.1b Structures 1734.4.2 The Crystallisation Process 1754.4.3 n-Alkane-Wax Nucleation 1754.4.4 Effects of Additives on Nucleation 1774.4.4a EVAC Nucleator 1774.4.4b Nucleator Additives with Crystallinity, PEG Esters and PEPEP 1794.4.5 n-Alkane-Wax Crystal Growth 1814.4.5a Comparison of Untreated and WCM Treated Wax Crystals 1814.4.5b Mechanism of Crystal Growth 1824.4.5c Effects of Additives on Crystal Growth 1844.4.5d Very Small Wax Crystals and Wax Anti-Settling 1884.4.5e Cloud Point Depression 1904.4.5f Rapid Growth of Wax Crystals in Narrow Boiling Distillates 1914.6 Cold Flow Tests 1935 Protection of Metal Surfaces in Fuel Systems: Lubricity Improvers and Corrosion Inhibitors 2095.1 Lubricity: Introduction 2095.2 Detailed Lubricity Problems 2115.2.1 Jet Fuel 2115.2.2 Gasoline 2125.2.3 Diesel 2145.3 Chemistries of Lubricity Improvers 2165.3.1 Carboxylic Acids as Lubricity Improvers 2165.3.2 Carboxylic Esters and Amides as Lubricity Improvers 2185.4 Understanding of Boundary Friction and Lubricity 2205.5 Introduction: Corrosion in Fuel Systems 2245.6 Corrosion Issues in Various Fuels 2265.6.1 Automotive Gasoline and Diesel Fuels 2265.6.2 Jet Fuels 2275.6.3 Heating Oils 2285.6.4 Distillate Marine Fuels and Off-Road Fuels 2295.6.5 Heavy (Residual) Fuels 2295.7 Chemistries of Fuel Corrosion Inhibitors 2305.7.1 Corrosion by Water/Oxygen and by Carboxylic Acids 2315.7.2 Corrosion by Sulphur 2355.7.3 Corrosion by Vanadium Pentoxide 2405.8 Mechanisms of Corrosion and Its Inhibition 2415.8.1 Corrosion by Water/Oxygen and by Carboxylic Acids 2415.8.2 Corrosion by Sulphur 2445.8.3 Corrosion by Vanadium Pentoxide 2456 Combustion Improvers 2616.1 The Need for Combustion Improvers 2616.2 Combustion Improver Specific Problems 2626.2.1 Gasoline Engine Knock and Octane Boosters 2626.2.2 Diesel Knock and Cetane Improvers 2656.2.3 Combustion Improvers for Heating Oils and Heavy Fuels 2696.2.4 Combustion Improvers for Particulates in Diesel Engine Exhausts 2706.3 Mechanisms of Soot Formation and Its Removal 2756.3.1 The Formation of Soot 2757 Additives to Treat Problems during the Movement and Storage of Fuels 2877.1 Introduction 2877.2 Drag Reducing Agents 2887.2.1 The Pipeline Problem 2887.2.2 Chemistries of DRAs 2897.2.3 The Process of Drag Reduction 2917.3 Static Dissipaters 2917.3.1 The Problem of Static Electricity in Fuels 2917.3.2 Chemistries of Static Dissipaters 2947.3.3 Understanding Static Dissipaters 2997.4 Antifoam Additives 3027.4.1 The Problem of Foaming 3027.4.2 What Antifoams Do and Their Chemistries 3037.4.3 Syntheses of Silicone Antifoams 3047.4.4 How Antifoam Additives Work 3067.5 Demulsifiers and Dehazers 3077.5.1 The Problem of Water-in-Fuel Emulsions or Haze 3077.5.2 The Chemistry of Demulsifiers 3087.5.3 The Process of Demulsification 3137.6 Anti-Icing 3157.6.1 The Problem of Icing 3157.6.2 The Gasoline Icing Problem 3167.6.3 The Jet Fuel Icing Problem 3177.6.4 Jet Fuel Anti-Icing Additives 3197.7 Biocides 3207.7.1 Problems 3207.7.2 Chemistries of Biocides Used in Fuels 321Index 335

O autorze

Robert D. Tack, PhD, currently retired, finished his career at Infineum UK Ltd developing fuel additives. Prior to that Dr. Tack worked at Exxon Chemical in the PARAMINS division developing lube oil and fuel additives.