ISBN-13: 9781119470373 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 400 str.
ISBN-13: 9781119470373 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 400 str.
PrefaceGlossary of Terms1 History of Thermal Processing1.1 A brief history of the science and technology of thermal processing1.2 Food Microbiology as a Science1.3 Packaging for Heat Preserved Foods1.3.1 Convenience - the can opener is invented1.3.2 Other forms of packing for "canned foods"1.4 Developments in Cannery Equipment1.5 Food Safety2 Microbiology of Heat Preserved Foods2.1 Food microbiology2.1.1 Fungi2.1.1.1 Moulds2.1.1.2 Yeasts2.1.2 Bacteria2.1.2.1 Growth and reproduction of bacteria2.2 Factors that affect the growth of microorganisms2.2.1 pH2.2.2 Moisture2.2.3 Nutrients2.2.4 Oxidation-reduction potential2.2.5 Antimicrobial resistance2.2.6 Biological structures2.2.7 Relative humidity2.2.8 Oxygen content/concentration of gases in the environment2.2.9 Temperature2.3 Description of some microorganisms of importance to thermal processing2.3.1 Moulds2.3.2 Yeasts2.3.3 Bacteria2.2.3.1 Thermophiles2.3.3.2 Mesophiles - spore-forming bacteria2.3.3.3 Mesophiles - non-spore forming pathogenic and spoilage bacteria2.3.3.4 Psychrophiles2.4 Risk of leaker spoilage from damaged or compromised packaging2.5 A guideline for identifying spoilage in canned foods3 Hurdles to Microbial Growth3.1 Control of the microorganism loading3.2 Use of restrictive pH levels3.3 Anaerobic environment or modified atmosphere environment3.4 Low temperatures3.5 Dehydration or low water activity3.6 Chemical preservation3.6.1 Organic acids3.6.2 Sulphites and nitrites3.6.3 Antibiotics3.6.4 Antioxidants3.7 Irradiation3.8 Combination Treatments4 Low Acid Canned Foods4.1 Production of a thermally processed food4.2 F03 sterilisation processes4.3 Commercial sterilisation4.4 Microorganism death kinetics4.5 Log reductions5 Acid and Other Pasteurized Products5.1 Background5.1.1 Naturally acid foods5.2 Pasteurisation5.2.1 Considerations when designing a safe pasteurisation process5.2.2 Calculation of pasteurisation values5.3 Inhibitory factors to microorganism growth5.4 P-value guidelines5.4.1 High acid: pH5.4.2 Acid: pH 3.5-4.05.4.3 Acid: pH 4.0-4.25.4.4 Medium acid: pH 4.2-4.65.5 Guidelines and General Recommendations5.5.1 Guidelines to critical factors in thermal processing of acid foods5.6 Thermal processing of fruit5.3.1 Packaging selection5.3.2 Oxidation reactions inside an internally plain can of acid fruit5.3.3 Pigments that discolour in internally plain cans5.7 Thermal processing of products with low water activity5.7.1 Jam and high sugar preserves5.7.2 Canned cake and sponge pudding5.8 Thermal processing of cured meats6 Acidified Foods6.1 Background6.2 Acidity measurement using pH6.2.1 The history of pH6.2.2 The chemistry of pH6.2.3 Measurement of pH6.2.3.1 Potentiometric method6.2.3.2 Colorimetric measurement6.2.4 Equilibrium pH6.3 Acidification of foods6.4 Processing acidified foods6.5 Design of pasteurisation processes6.5.1 Medium acid range: pH 4.2-4.66.5.2 Acid range: pH 3.5-4.26.5.3 High acid range: pH below 3.56.6 Hot fill and hold processing6.7 Critical control points in the production of acidified foods6.7.1 Ingredients6.7.2 Heat processing6.7.3 Post process equilibrated pH6.7.4 Container integrity6.7.5 pH during product shelf-life7 Heat Preserved Chilled Foods7.1 Understanding microorganism behaviour7.1.1 Pathogenic microorganisms relevant to chilled foods7.1.1.1 Clostridium botulinum7.1.1.2 Bacillus cereus7.1.2 Microorganisms likely to be found in chilled foods7.2 Methods of manufacture7.2.1 Thermal process step applied prior to packaging7.2.1.1 Low care-high care factories7.2.2 Thermal process step applied after packaging7.2.2.1 Caution with latent heat for frozen protein8 Processing Systems8.1 In-pack processing: Retort systems8.1.1 Condensing steam retorts8.1.2 Crateless retorts8.1.3 Water immersion retorts8.1.4 Water spray and cascade8.1.5 Steam / air retorts8.1.6 Shaka retorts8.1.7 Reel & spiral retorts8.1.8 Hydrostatic retorts8.2 In-line processing: Heat exchangers8.2.1 Flow behaviour8.2.2 Choice of heat exchanger8.2.3 Maximising product recovery7.3 New thermal technologies9 Cook Values and Optimisation of Thermal Processes9.1 Mathematical analysis of cooking9.1.1 Cooking equations and kinetic data9.1.2 Competition between sterilisation and cooking9.1.3 Optimisation of temperature / time in processing9.2 Setting process targets9.2.1 How to select processing conditions without excess quality damage10 Process Validation: Temperature and Heat Distribution10.1 Temperature Distribution10.1.1 Temperature measurement systems10.2 Heat Distribution10.2.1 Modes of heat transfer10.2.1.1 Radiation10.2.1.2 Conduction10.2.1.3 Convection10.2.1.4 Broken heating or mixed heating10.3 Heat distribution testing10.3.1 Conducting a HD test11 Process Validation: Heat Penetration and Process Calculations11.1 Setting the target process value11.2 Selecting the conditions for the HP study11.3 Locating the product cold point11.4 Process establishment methods11.4.1 Log reduction methods for HP testing11.4.1.1 Microbiological spore methods11.4.1.2 Biochemical systems11.5 Process calculation methods11.5.1 General method11.5.2 Ball method11.5.3 Numerical methods11.5.3 Continuous flow with particulates12 Cooling and Water Treatment12.1 Chlorine12.1.1 Chlorine demand and residual chlorine12.1.2 Using chlorine12.2 Chlorine dioxide12.3 Bromine12.4 Ozone12.5 Ultraviolet light12.6 Membrane filtration13 Handling Processing Deviations13.1 What constitutes a process deviation13.2 What can go wrong13.3 Actions required13.3.1 TPA actions13.3.2 Process deviation analysis for broken heating products13.3.2 Reprocessing14 Packaging Options for Heat Preserved Foods14.1 Metal containers14.1.1 Tin plate14.1.2 Tin free steel (TFS or ECCS)14.1.3 Aluminium14.1.4 Protective coatings (lacquers)14.1.4.1 Vinyl lacquers 414.1.4.2 Organosol lacquers14.1.4.3 Epoxy-phenolic lacquer14.1.4.4 Polyester lacquer14.1.4.5 Acrylic Lacquers14.1.4.6 Side stripe lacquers to cover the weld14.1.5 Internally plain (unlacquered) cans14.1.6 External covering14.2 Can construction and handling14.2.1 Product specification14.2.2 Storage and handling of empty unused cans and ends14.2.3 Cleaning of empty unused cans14.2.4 Double seam formation and inspection procedures14.2.5 Washing of filled cans14.2.6 Processing of cans14.2.7 Cooling of cans14.2.7.1 Corrosion prevention14.2.8 Secondary packaging14.3 Glass1.3.1 Glass manufacture14.3.2 Closures for sealing glass food containers14.3.3 Sealing mechanisms14.3.4 Inspection procedures14.3.5 Packing and processing14.3.5.1 Inspection and preparation of containers14.3.5.2 Filling14.3.5.3 Capping14.3.5.4 Atmospheric processing14.3.5.5 Pressure processing14.3.5.6 Cooling14.4 Plastics, flexibles and laminates14.4.1 Advantages of retortable plastics14.4.2 Disadvantages of retortable plastics14.4.3 Polymers used for retortable packaging14.4.3.1 Polypropylene (PP)14.4.3.2 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)14.4.3.3 Ethylvinylalcohol (EVOH)14.4.3.4 Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)14.4.3.5 Polyamide (PA)14.4.3.6 Aluminium14.4.3.7 Glass-coated barrier films14.4.4 Types of packages used for thermally processed foods14.4.4.1 Retort pouches14.4.4.2 Plastic cans and pots14.4.4.3 Retortable composite carton14.4.5 Processing considerations - control of headspace15 Incubation Testing15.1 Purpose of incubation tests15.2 Causes of spoilage15.2.1 Leaker spoilage15.2.2 Under-processing15.2.3 Thermophilic spoilage15.3 Descriptive terms for canned food spoilage15.4 Methods for incubation testing15.4.1 Sample size15.4.2 Temperatures and times for incubation15.4.2.1 Thermophilic organisms15.4.2.2 Mesophilic organisms15.4.3 Post incubation inspection of containers15.5 Biotesting16 Critical Factors in Thermal Processing16.1 Background16.2 Key aspects of hygiene control systems for food processing (from Codex Alimentarius)16.3 Identifying critical control points in thermal processing16.3.1 Microbial load or bio-burden16.3.2 pH of the product16.3.3 Water activity (aw)16.3.4 Consistency16.3.5 Presence, concentration and types of preservatives16.3.6 Rehydration16.3.7 Blanching16.3.8 Size and style of in-going ingredients16.3.9 Container, packing and filling considerations16.3.9.1 Headspace16.3.9.2 Container vacuum and exhausting of containers16.3.9.3 Container size and geometry16.3.9.4 Initial temperature of product16.3.10 Process related critical factors16.3.10.1 Processing method16.3.10.2 Processing medium16.3.10.3 Type and characteristics of heat processing system16.3.10.4 Processing temperature16.3.10.5 Processing time16.3.10.6 Processing at high altitudes17 Environmental Aspects of Thermal Processing17.1 Lifecycle Assessment (LCA)17.1.1 Impact categories17.1.1.1 Global warming potential (GWP)17.1.1.2 Pesticide use / ecotoxicity17.1.1.3 Abiotic resource use17.1.1.4 Acidification potential17.1.1.5 Eutrophication potential17.1.1.6 Land use17.1.1.7 Water use17.2 Greenhouse gas emissions17.2.1 Case study: Bottled apple juice17.2.1.1 Raw materials (0.407 kg CO2e/PU)17.2.1.2 Manufacture (0.061 kg CO2e/PU)17.2.1.3 Transportation (0.057 kg CO2e/PU)17.2.1.4 Waste (0 kg CO2e/PU)17.2.1.5 Overall carbon footprint (0.525 kg CO2e/PU)17.2.1.6 GHG emissions for other food productsIndex
Gary Tucker, Campden BRI in the United Kingdom.Susan Featherstone is a Director at Safe Food Consulting in South Africa.
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