Coal Geology

ISBN-13: 9781119424130 / Angielski / Twarda / 2020 / 536 str.

Larry Thomas

Spis treści

Preface to Third Edition xvPreface to Second Edition xviiPreface to First Edition xixList of Acronyms xxi1 Preview 11.1 Scope 11.2 Coal Geology 11.3 Coal Use 21.4 Background 22 Origin of Coal 52.1 Introduction 52.2 Sedimentation of Coal and Coal-Bearing Sequences 52.2.1 Depositional Models 52.2.2 The Traditional Model 62.2.2.1 Prodelta and Delta Front Facies 82.2.2.2 Lower Delta Plain Facies 82.2.2.3 Upper Delta Plain Facies 112.2.2.4 Fluvial Facies 112.2.3 Modern Peat Analogues 112.2.3.1 Palaeobotanical Composition of Ancient Mires 192.2.3.2 Case Studies 242.2.4 Sequence Stratigraphy 252.2.5 Facies Correlation 272.2.6 Facies Maps 292.2.6.1 Seam Splitting 312.2.6.2 Washouts 342.2.6.3 Floor Rolls 342.2.6.4 Coal Seam Thickness Variations 352.2.6.5 Interburden/Overburden Thickness 372.2.6.6 Coal Seam Quality Variations 382.3 Structural Effects on Coal 402.3.1 Syndepositional Effects 402.3.1.1 Microstructural Effects 402.3.1.2 Macrostructural Effects 412.3.2 Post-Depositional Effects 442.3.2.1 Jointing/Cleats in Coal 442.3.2.2 Faulting 452.3.2.3 Folding 502.3.2.4 Igneous Associations 522.3.2.5 Mineral Precipitates 533 Age and Occurrence of Coal 573.1 Introduction 573.2 Plate Tectonics 573.3 Stratigraphy 613.4 Age and Geographical Distribution of Coal 643.4.1 United States of America 673.4.2 Canada 743.4.3 Europe 753.4.3.1 Albania 753.4.3.2 Austria 753.4.3.3 Belgium 753.4.3.4 Bosnia 753.4.3.5 Bulgaria 753.4.3.6 Czech Republic 753.4.3.7 Denmark 763.4.3.8 France 763.4.3.9 Germany 763.4.3.10 Georgia 763.4.3.11 Greece 773.4.3.12 Greenland 773.4.3.13 Holland 773.4.3.14 Hungary 773.4.3.15 Ireland 773.4.3.16 Italy 773.4.3.17 Kosovo 773.4.3.18 Montenegro 783.4.3.19 Poland 783.4.3.20 Portugal 783.4.3.21 Romania 783.4.3.22 Serbia 783.4.3.23 Spain 793.4.3.24 Spitzbergen 793.4.3.25 Sweden 793.4.3.26 Turkey 793.4.3.27 United Kingdom 793.4.4 Africa 803.4.4.1 Angola 803.4.4.2 Botswana 803.4.4.3 Cameroon 813.4.4.4 Egypt 813.4.4.5 Ethiopia 813.4.4.6 Malagasy Republic 813.4.4.7 Malawi 813.4.4.8 Mali 813.4.4.9 Morocco 813.4.4.10 Mozambique 823.4.4.11 Namibia 823.4.4.12 Niger 823.4.4.13 Nigeria 823.4.4.14 South Africa 823.4.4.15 Swaziland 833.4.4.16 Tanzania 833.4.4.17 Zaire 833.4.4.18 Zambia 833.4.4.19 Zimbabwe 833.4.5 The Indian Subcontinent 843.4.5.1 Afghanistan 843.4.5.2 Bangladesh 843.4.5.3 India 843.4.5.4 Iran 853.4.5.5 Pakistan 853.4.6 Central and South America 853.4.6.1 Argentina 853.4.6.2 Bolivia 863.4.6.3 Brazil 863.4.6.4 Chile 863.4.6.5 Colombia 873.4.6.6 Costa Rica 873.4.6.7 Ecuador 873.4.6.8 Mexico 873.4.6.9 Peru 873.4.6.10 Uruguay 883.4.6.11 Venezuela 883.4.7 Commonwealth of Independent States 883.4.7.1 Kazakhstan 883.4.7.2 Russian Federation 883.4.7.3 Tajikistan 893.4.7.4 Ukraine 893.4.7.5 Uzbekistan 893.4.8 Far East 893.4.8.1 Brunei 893.4.8.2 Democratic Republic of (North) Korea 903.4.8.3 Indonesia 903.4.8.4 Japan 913.4.8.5 Laos 913.4.8.6 Malaysia 913.4.8.7 Mongolia 913.4.8.8 Myanmar (Burma) 923.4.8.9 People's Republic of China 923.4.8.10 People's Republic of Vietnam 933.4.8.11 Philippines 933.4.8.12 Republic of (South) Korea 943.4.8.13 Taiwan 943.4.8.14 Thailand 943.4.9 Australasia 953.4.9.1 Australia 953.4.9.2 New Zealand 963.4.9.3 Antarctica 964 Coal as a Substance 974.1 Physical Description of Coal 974.1.1 Macroscopic Description of Coal 974.1.1.1 Humic Coals 974.1.1.2 Sapropelic Coals 1014.1.2 Microscopic Description of Coal 1024.1.3 Mineral Content of Coals 1064.1.4 Coal Petrography 1134.2 Coalification (Rank) 1164.2.1 Coalification 1164.2.2 Causes of Coalification 1184.2.2.1 Temperature 1204.2.2.2 Time 1204.2.2.3 Pressure 1204.2.2.4 Radioactivity 1214.3 Coal Quality 1214.3.1 Chemical Properties of Coal 1224.3.1.1 Basis of Analytical Data 1224.3.1.2 Proximate Analysis 1234.3.1.3 Ultimate Analysis 1254.3.1.4 Other Analysis 1264.3.2 Combustion Properties of Coal 1274.3.2.1 Calorific Value 1274.3.2.2 Ash Fusion Temperatures 1284.3.2.3 Caking Tests 1284.3.2.4 Coking Tests 1294.3.3 Physical Properties of Coal 1314.3.3.1 Mechanical Strength 1314.3.3.2 Density 1324.3.3.3 Hardness and Grindability 1324.3.3.4 Abrasion Index 1334.3.3.5 Particle Size Distribution 1334.3.3.6 Float-Sink Tests 1334.3.4 Coal Oxidation 1354.4 Classification of Coals 1364.4.1 North America 1364.4.2 United Kingdom 1364.4.3 Europe 1374.4.4 Australia 1464.4.5 South Africa 1464.4.6 United Nations 1464.4.7 Russia 1484.4.8 People's Republic of China 1495 Coal Sampling and Analysis 1515.1 Coal Sampling 1515.1.1 In-Situ Coal Sampling 1515.1.1.1 Grab Samples 1515.1.1.2 Channel Samples 1515.1.1.3 Pillar Samples 1545.1.1.4 Core Samples 1545.1.1.5 Cuttings Samples 1555.1.1.6 Specimen Samples 1555.1.1.7 Bulk Samples 1565.1.1.8 Sample Storage 1565.1.2 Ex-Situ Sampling 1575.2 Coal Analysis 1625.2.1 Outcrop/Core Samples 1625.2.2 Bulk Samples 1625.2.3 Ex-Situ Samples 1626 Coal Exploration and Data Collection 1696.1 Introduction 1696.2 Field Techniques 1696.2.1 Outcrop Mapping 1726.2.2 Global Positioning System 1796.2.3 Portable Personal Computers 1796.2.4 Remote Sensing 1806.2.4.1 Satellite Imagery 1806.2.4.2 Airborne Imagery 1816.3 Drilling 1836.3.1 Openhole Drilling 1846.3.2 Core Drilling 1886.3.3 Portable Drilling 1896.3.4 Core and Openhole Logging 1906.3.4.1 Core Logging 1906.3.4.2 Openhole Logging 1936.4 Geotechnical Properties 1946.4.1 Strength 1956.4.2 Weathering 1966.4.3 Texture and Structure 1966.4.4 Colour 1966.4.5 Grain Size 1986.4.6 Total Core Recovery 1986.4.7 Solid Core Recovery 1986.4.8 Rock Quality Designation 1986.4.9 Fracture Spacing Index 1986.4.10 Fracture Logging 1996.4.11 Rock Mass Rating 2016.5 Computer Applications 2017 Coal Resources and Reserves 2077.1 Introduction 2077.2 Coal Resources and Reserves Classification 2087.2.1 Australia 2097.2.1.1 Coal Resources 2097.2.1.2 Coal Reserves 2117.2.2 Canada 2117.2.3 Europe (Including the UK) 2127.2.4 South Africa 2137.2.5 United Nations 2137.2.6 United States of America 2167.2.7 Russian Federation 2197.2.8 People's Republic of China 2227.2.9 India 2227.2.10 Other Countries 2247.3 Reporting of Resources/Reserves 2257.3.1 Coal Resources and Reserves 2257.3.2 Coal Resources and Reserves Maps 2267.3.3 Calculation of Coal Resources 2277.3.3.1 In-Situ Tonnage Calculations 2277.3.3.2 Geostatistics and Computer Modelling 2297.3.3.3 Opencast Coal Mining 2327.3.3.4 Geological Losses 2337.3.3.5 Reserves Reporting 2357.3.3.6 Reserve Economics 2357.4 World Coal Reserves and Production 2357.4.1 World Coal Reserves 2357.4.2 World Coal Production 2377.4.2.1 Coal Production Statistics 2377.4.2.2 Regional Production and Consumption 2417.4.2.3 Reserves/Production Ratio 2428 Geophysics of Coal 2438.1 Introduction 2438.2 Physical Properties of Coal-Bearing Sequences 2448.2.1 Density 2448.2.2 Seismic Velocity 2448.2.3 Seismic Reflection Coefficients 2458.2.4 Magnetic Susceptibility 2458.2.5 Electrical Conductivity 2458.2.6 Radiometric Properties 2458.3 Surface Geophysical Methods 2468.3.1 Seismic Surveys 2468.3.1.1 Seismic Reflection Surveys 2468.3.1.2 Seismic Refraction Surveys 2568.3.1.3 Passive Seismic Surveys 2578.3.2 Gravity Surveys 2578.3.3 Magnetic Surveys 2598.3.4 Electrical Methods 2628.3.4.1 Electrical Resistivity Methods 2628.3.4.2 Ground-Penetrating Radar Methods 2628.3.4.3 Electromagnetic Surveys 2638.3.5 Radioactive Methods 2648.4 Underground Geophysical Methods 2648.4.1 In-Seam Seismic Surveys 2648.4.2 Underground Gravity Surveys 2698.4.3 Ground-Penetrating Radar Techniques 2698.5 Geophysical Borehole Logging 2698.5.1 Radiation Logs 2718.5.1.1 Gamma-Ray Log 2718.5.1.2 Density Log 2738.5.1.3 Neutron Log 2748.5.1.4 Gamma Spectrometry 2768.5.2 Calliper Log 2768.5.3 Electric Logs 2778.5.4 Dipmeter Log 2778.5.5 Sonic Log 2788.5.6 Acoustic Scanning Tools 2798.5.7 Temperature Log 2808.5.8 Advanced Interpretation 2829 Hydrogeology of Coal 2899.1 Introduction 2899.2 The Nature of Groundwater and Surface Flow 2899.2.1 Surface Water 2899.2.2 Groundwater 2909.3 Hydrogeological Characteristics of Coals and Coal-Bearing Sequences 2929.4 Collection and Handling of Hydrogeological Data 2959.4.1 Surface Water 2959.4.2 Groundwater 2959.5 Groundwater Inflows in Mines 2989.5.1 Dewatering of Open-pit Mines 2999.5.2 Dewatering of Underground Mines 3069.5.3 Water Quality 3079.6 Groundwater Rebound 30710 Geology and Coal Mining 31110.1 Introduction 31110.2 Underground Mining 31210.2.1 Geological Factors 31310.2.2 Mining Methods 31410.2.2.1 Longwall Mining 31410.2.2.2 Room-and-Pillar Mining 31610.2.2.3 Stress Fields 31810.2.2.4 Coal Bursts 32610.2.2.5 Strata and Air Temperatures 32710.2.2.6 Spontaneous Combustion 32810.3 Surface Mining 32810.3.1 Geological Factors 32810.3.2 Mining Equipment 33010.3.2.1 Dragline 33010.3.2.2 Powered Shovels 33110.3.2.3 Bucketwheel Excavators 33410.3.3 Surface Mining Methods 33510.3.3.1 Strip Mining 33510.3.3.2 Opencast or Open-pit Mining 33510.3.3.3 Highwall Mining 33810.4 Coal Production 33910.4.1 Underground Coal Production 34010.4.2 Surface Coal Production 34011 Coal as an Alternative Energy Source 34311.1 Introduction 34311.2 Gas in Coal 34311.2.1 Coal-bed Methane 34511.2.1.1 Coal-bed Methane Generation 34511.2.1.2 Coal-bed Methane Retention 34611.2.1.3 Coal-bed Methane Production 34911.3 Underground Coal Gasification 36511.3.1 Underground Coal Gasification: The Case For and Against 36511.3.2 Underground Coal Gasification Technology 36611.3.2.1 Coal Gasification Reactions 36611.3.3 Global Development of Underground Coal Gasification 37311.4 Coal as a Liquid Fuel 37511.4.1 Petroleum Potential of Coal 37511.4.2 Coal Properties as an Oil-Source Rock 37511.4.3 Coal Liquefaction Technology 37811.4.4 Future Development of Coal Liquefaction 37911.4.5 Coal-Sourced Oil and Gas Occurrences 38112 Coal Use and the Environment 38512.1 Introduction 38512.2 Coalmining 38612.2.1 Effects on Water Supply 38712.2.1.1 Surface Water 38712.2.1.2 Underground Water 38712.2.2 Contamination of Mine Waters 38712.2.3 Other Water Pollution 39112.2.4 Run-off, Erosion, and Sedimentation 39112.2.5 Spoil Dumping 39212.2.6 Spontaneous Combustion 39612.2.7 Dust Suppression 39712.2.8 Subsidence 39812.3 Coal Use 40112.3.1 Electricity Generation 40412.3.1.1 Emissions 40512.3.1.2 Flue Gas Desulfurisation 40912.3.1.3 Other Emission Controls 41012.3.1.4 Fluidised-Bed Combustion 41112.3.2 Other Major Users 41312.3.2.1 Iron and Steel Production 41312.3.2.2 Industrial Use 41412.3.2.3 Domestic Use 41512.3.3 Coal Transportation 41512.4 Health 41512.5 Carbon Capture and Storage 41612.6 Environmental Regulations 41812.6.1 Introduction 41812.6.2 United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Conventions 41912.6.3 European Union 42012.6.4 World Bank 42012.6.5 Kyoto Protocol 42012.6.6 Copenhagen Accord 42112.6.7 Durban Platform for Enhanced Action 42112.6.8 Paris Agreement 42112.7 Future Implications 42213 Coal Marketing 42313.1 Introduction 42313.2 Coal Quality 42313.3 Transportation 42513.3.1 Land Transportation 42513.3.1.1 Conveyors 42613.3.1.2 Road 42613.3.1.3 Rail 42713.3.2 Water Transportation 42813.3.2.1 Barges 42813.3.2.2 Bulk Carriers 42913.4 Coal Markets 43013.5 Coal Contracts 43113.5.1 Spot Purchases 43113.5.2 Term Contracts 43113.5.3 Indexed Contracts 43213.6 Coal Price and Indexing 433Appendix A List of International and National Standards Used in Coal and Coke Analysis and Evaluation 435A.1 British Standards Institution (BS) 435A.2 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 438A.3 ASTM International, Formerly Known as American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 441A.4 Standards Association of Australia (AS) 444A.5 National Standards of People's Republic of China 446A.6 Bureau of Indian Standards 449A.7 State Standards of Russia - GOST (GOST = Gosudarstvennyy Standart) 451Appendix B Tables of True and Apparent Dip, Slope Angles, Gradients, and Percentage Slope 455Appendix C Calorific Values Expressed in Different Units 457Appendix D Coal Statistics 463Appendix E Methane Units Converter 465Glossary 467Bibliography 475Index 497

O autorze

LARRY THOMAS graduated from the University of Wales with a Ph.D in coalfield sedimentology, and has since been associated with the geology, exploration and mining of coal for over 50 years, and has produced a number of technical papers, maps and reports on coal deposits worldwide. He is a director of Dargo Associates Ltd., an international coal consultancy, involved in assessment of coal resources and coal utilisation in many parts of the world for both mining operations, fuel for electricity generation and for project financing.