Chemistry of Environmental Systems: Fundamental Principles and Analytical Methods

ISBN-13: 9781119313403 / Angielski / Twarda / 2019 / 576 str.

Jeffrey S. Gaffney; Nancy A. Marley

Spis treści

About the Authors xiiiPreface xvAcknowledgments xixSupplementary Material xxi1 Introduction to Environmental Chemistry 11.1 What is Environmental Chemistry? 11.2 Anthropogenic Pollution 21.3 A Planet at Risk 41.4 Energy, Water, and Population Connections 61.5 The Need to Understand Environmental Problems 101.6 Atmosphere-Hydrosphere-Geosphere-Biosphere Linkages 13References 16Study Problems 162 Atmospheric Composition and Basic Physics 192.1 Evolution of the Atmosphere 192.2 Structure and Composition of the Modern Atmosphere 222.3 Atmospheric Circulation 272.4 Energy Balance 342.4.1 Milankovitch Cycles 352.4.2 Planetary Albedo 382.4.3 Greenhouse Gases 402.4.4 Aerosols 432.5 Global Climate Models 44References 47Study Problems 483 The Fundamentals of Photochemistry 513.1 Light and Photochemistry 513.2 The Laws of Photochemistry 573.3 Thermochemical and Photochemical Processes 593.3.1 Activation Energy 603.3.2 Kinetics 623.4 Photochemical Deactivation Processes 69References 72Further Reading 72Study Problems 724 Chemistry of the Stratosphere 754.1 Structure and Composition of the Stratosphere 754.2 The Ozone Layer 784.3 Ozone Formation in the Stratosphere 804.3.1 The Chapman Cycle 804.3.2 Term Symbols 814.3.3 The HOx and NOx Cycles 834.4 Ozone Depletion 854.4.1 Chlorofluorocarbons 854.4.2 The "Ozone Hole" 884.4.3 Altitude Dependence 904.4.4 Ozone-Depleting Substances 934.5 Summary 95References 98Further Reading 99Study Problems 995 Chemistry of the Troposphere 1035.1 Structure and Composition of the Troposphere 1035.2 History of Smog 1055.3 The Clean Air Act 1105.3.1 Criteria Pollutants 1105.3.2 Non-Criteria Pollutants 1125.4 Formation of Ozone in the Troposphere 1135.4.1 The Photostationary State 1135.4.2 The Hydroxyl Radical 1145.4.3 Hydroxyl Radical Abstraction Reactions 1155.4.4 Hydroxyl Radical Addition Reactions 1185.5 Nitrate Radical and Ozone 1215.6 The Peroxyacyl Nitrates 1225.7 Troposphere-Biosphere Interactions 124References 127Further Reading 128Study Problems 1286 Aerosols and Cloud Chemistry 1336.1 Aerosol Size Distributions 1336.2 Aerosol Sources and Sinks 1366.2.1 Primary Aerosol Emissions 1386.2.2 Secondary Aerosol Formation 1406.2.3 Wet Deposition and Henry's Law 1436.2.4 Dry Deposition 1456.3 Aerosol Lifetimes 1486.4 Determination of Aerosol Sources 1516.5 Aerosol Health Effects 1566.6 Aerosol Visibility and Climate Effects 1586.7 Aqueous Chemistry 164References 165Further Reading 166Study Problems 1667 Analytical Methods for Air Analysis 1717.1 Sampling Methods 1727.2 Gas Species Measurement Methods 1757.2.1 The Oxidants: Ozone, Hydroxyl Radical, Peroxyacyl Nitrates, Peroxides, and Peracids 1757.2.2 The Oxides: Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Nitric Acid, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide, and Nitrous Oxide 1867.2.2.1 Nitric Oxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, and Nitric Acid 1867.2.2.2 Nitric Acid, Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Sulfur Dioxide, and Nitrous Oxide 1887.2.3 The Organics: Volatile Organic Hydrocarbons, Aldehydes, Ketones, and Halogenated Hydrocarbons 1917.3 Aerosols 1957.3.1 Sample Collection 1957.3.2 Aerosol Composition 1967.4 Aerosol Optical Properties 1997.5 Method Selection 2017.6 The Importance of Baseline Measurements 204References 207Further Reading 207Study Problems 2088 Chemistry of Surface and Ground Waters 2138.1 The Unique Properties of Water 2148.2 The Hydrological Cycle 2168.3 Ocean Currents and Circulation 2208.4 The Structure of Natural Aquatic Systems 2248.4.1 The Oceans 2248.4.2 Freshwater Systems 2258.5 The Composition of Natural Aquatic Systems 2288.5.1 Dissolved Oxygen 2298.5.2 Nitrogen and Phosphorus 2308.5.3 Sulfur 2328.5.4 Carbon 2338.6 Water Pollution 2388.6.1 Point Sources 2398.6.2 Nonpoint Sources 2438.7 Contaminant Transformation 2468.8 Contaminant Transport 252References 257Further Reading 258Study Problems 2589 Analytical Methods for Water Analysis 2639.1 Sampling Methods 2639.2 Dissolved Species 2669.2.1 Electrochemical Methods 2679.2.2 Spectroscopic Methods 2729.2.3 Chromatographic Methods 2869.2.4 Titration Methods 2919.2.5 Radiochemical Methods 2929.3 Particulates and Colloids 2939.4 Contaminant Issues 297References 299Study Problems 30010 Fossil and Biomass Fuels 30510.1 Combustion Chemistry 30510.2 Formation and Recovery of Fossil Fuels 30810.2.1 The Formation of Fossil Fuels 30910.2.2 Coal Mining 31310.2.3 Oil and Gas Recovery 31510.3 Fossil Fuel Use 31910.4 Biomass Fuels 32310.4.1 Biomass Fuel Production 32410.4.2 Biomass Fuel Use 32610.5 Impacts on Water Quality 33010.5.1 Fossil Fuels 33010.5.2 Biomass Fuels 33510.6 Impacts on Air Quality 33810.6.1 Fossil Fuels 33810.6.2 Biomass Fuels 34510.7 Gasoline Additives: Lessons Learned 347References 349Study Problems 35011 Climate Change 35511.1 Prehistoric Climates 35811.2 Causes of Climate Change 36011.2.1 Global Warming Potentials 36211.2.2 Greenhouse Gas Sources and Sinks 36311.2.3 Radiative Forcing 36711.3 Climate Models 36811.4 Predictions of Future Climate Change 37011.5 Impacts from the Predicted Temperature Rise 37311.6 Climate Effects on Air Quality and Health 37711.7 Mitigation and Adaption Strategies 379References 386Study Problems 38612 Nuclear Energy 39112.1 Radioactivity 39112.2 Radioactive Emissions and Decay Kinetics 39412.3 Sources of Radioisotopes 39912.4 Nuclear Fission 40112.5 Nuclear Weapons Testing and Fallout 40312.6 Nuclear Power 40712.6.1 Harnessing Nuclear Energy 40712.6.2 Uranium Production 41012.6.3 Nuclear Plant Designs 41212.6.4 Nuclear Waste 41412.7 Radioisotopes in the Environment 41712.8 Radiation Exposure 42112.9 Applications of Radioisotopes 424References 428Study Problems 42913 Future Energy Sources and Sustainability 43313.1 The Need for Non-Fossil Energy Sources 43413.2 Alternative Energy Sources 43713.2.1 Wind Power 43813.2.2 Hydropower 44213.2.3 Geothermal Energy 44413.2.4 Solar Power 44513.2.5 Biomass 44913.2.6 Hydrogen 45013.3 Sustainability 45213.4 Long-Term Planning 455References 460Study Problems 461Appendix A Answers to Study Problems 465Appendix B List of U.S. EPA Hazardous Air Pollutants - Air Toxics 503Appendix C Henry's Law Constants (Hx) for Selected Inorganic and Organic Compounds 509Appendix D Organic Water Pollutants, their Chemical Structures, Sources, and Concentration Limits in U.S. Drinking Water 519Appendix E Chemicals Used in the Hydraulic Fracturing of Oil Shales for Natural Gas Extraction 527Glossary 529Index 541

O autorze

JEFFREY S. GAFFNEY, PHD, is Emeritus Chair and Professor of Chemistry at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Arkansas, USA. Before retiring after 10 years at UALR, he was a senior chemist at three of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) National Labs (Argonne, Brookhaven, and Los Alamos) for 31 years, and was the Lead Scientist for the DOE Atmospheric Science Program's Megacity Aerosol Experiment - Mexico City. He served as Chief Scientist and Mentor of the DOE Global Change Education Program. He is internationally known for his work in air and water chemistry and global change research.NANCY A. MARLEY, PHD, is a retired Chemist from Argonne National Laboratory and past Research Associate Professor, Graduate Institute of Technology at the University of Arkansas at Little Rock. She was a Head Mentor for the DOE Global Change Education Program and held positions as a Senior Chemist at the Florida State Department of Environmental Regulation and the Florida State Childhood Lead Poisoning Program.