Biodiesel Technology and Applications

ISBN-13: 9781119724643 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 512 str.

Inamuddin

Spis treści

Preface xvii1 Biocatalytic Processes for Biodiesel Production 1Ubaid Mehmood, Faizan Muneer, Muhammad Riaz, Saba Sarfraz and Habibullah Nadeem1.1 Introduction and Background 21.2 Importance of Biodiesel Over Conventional Diesel Fuel 31.3 Substrates for Biodiesel Production 41.4 Methods in Biodiesel Production 61.5 Types of Catalysts Involved in Biodiesel Production 71.5.1 Chemical Homogenous Catalysts 71.5.2 Solid Heterogeneous Catalysts 81.5.3 Biocatalysts 81.6 Factors Affecting Enzymatic Transesterification Reaction 81.6.1 Effect of Water in Enzyme Catalyzed Transesterification 91.6.2 Effect of Bioreactor 101.6.3 Effect of Acyl Acceptor on Enzymatic Production of Biodiesel 101.6.4 Effect of Temperature on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 141.6.5 Effect of Glycerol on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production 141.6.6 Effect of Solvent on Biodiesel Production 161.7 Lipases as Biocatalysts for Biodiesel Production 171.7.1 Mechanisms of Lipase Action 191.7.2 Efficient Lipase Sources for Biodiesel Producing Biocatalyst 191.8 Comparative Analysis of Intracellular and Extracellular Lipases for Biodiesel Production 211.9 Recombinant Lipases for Cost-Effective Biodiesel Production 261.10 Immobilization of Lipases for Better Biodiesel Production 281.11 Recent Strategies to Improve Biodiesel Production 311.11.1 Combination of Lipases 311.11.2 Microwave and Ultrasonic-Assisted Reaction 331.12 Lipase Catalyzed Reaction Modeling and Statistical Approaches for Reaction Optimization 351.13 Conclusion and Summary 38References 382 Application of Low-Frequency Ultrasound for Intensified Biodiesel Production Process 59Mohd Razealy Anuar, Mohamed Hussein Abdurahman, Nor Irwin Basir and Ahmad Zuhairi Abdullah2.1 Current Fossil Fuel Scenario 602.2 Biodiesel 602.3 Transesterification 612.4 Challenges for Improved Biodiesel Production 622.5 Homogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 632.6 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production 642.7 Immiscibility of the Reactants 652.8 Ultrasound-Assisted Biodiesel Production Process 662.8.1 Fundamental Aspects of the Process 662.8.2 Homogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 692.8.3 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 722.8.3.1 Heterogeneously Acid Catalyzed System 722.8.3.2 Heterogeneous Based Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System 742.8.3.3 Influence of Reaction Parameters 782.9 Conclusions 79Acknowledgement 80References 803 Application of Catalysts in Biodiesel Production 85Anilkumar R. Gupta and Virendra K. Rathod3.1 Introduction 853.2 Homogeneous Catalysis for the Biodiesel Production 893.2.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst 893.2.2 Homogeneous-Base Catalyst 933.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst 963.3.1 Heterogeneous Acid Catalyst 973.3.2 Heterogeneous-Base Catalyst 1063.4 Biocatalysts 1153.5 Conclusion 119References 1244 Hydrogenolysis as a Means of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol: A Review 137Manjoro T.T., Adeniyi A. and Mbaya R.K.K.4.1 Introduction 1384.2 Ways of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol 1394.2.1 Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol Into Value-Added Commodities 1404.2.1.1 Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol 1404.2.1.2 Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerol 1434.2.1.3 Pyrolysis of Bioglycerol 1444.2.1.4 Glycerol Transesterification 1454.2.1.5 Glycerol Direct Carboxylation 1464.3 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 1474.3.1 Definition of Hydrogenolysis 1474.3.2 Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 1484.3.3 Product Spectrum from Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol 1484.3.4 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO (Propylene Glycol): Reaction Systems Overview 1494.3.5 Catalyst Selection 1514.3.6 Reaction Conditions That Influence the Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO 1534.3.6.1 Effect of Reaction Temperature 1534.3.6.2 Effect of H2 Pressure 1544.3.6.3 Effect of Initial Water Concentration 1554.3.6.4 Effect of Reaction Time 1564.3.6.5 Effect of Catalyst Weight 1564.3.6.6 Proposed Reaction Mechanisms for Glycerol Hydrogenolysis to Produce 1,2-PDO 1574.4 Conclusion 159References 1595 Current Status, Synthesis, and Characterization of Biodiesel 167Akshay Garg, Gaurav Dwivedi, Prashant Baredar and Siddharth Jain5.1 Introduction 1675.2 Status of Biodiesel in India 1695.3 Biodiesel Production in India 1695.3.1 Feedstocks Popular in India 1695.3.1.1 Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Oil 1715.3.1.2 Pongamia Oil 1715.3.1.3 Mahua Oil 1715.3.1.4 Neem Oil 1715.3.1.5 Linseed Oil 1715.3.1.6 Rubber Seed Oil 1725.3.1.7 Tobacco Oil 1725.3.1.8 Castor 1725.3.1.9 Waste Cooking Oil 1725.3.1.10 Algae Oil 1725.3.2 Advantages of Non-Edible Oils 1735.3.3 Modification Techniques 1735.3.3.1 Blending 1735.3.3.2 Micro-Emulsification 1735.3.3.3 Cracking 1745.3.3.4 Transesterification 1745.3.4 Biodiesel Production Methodology 1745.3.4.1 Catalytic Transesterification 1745.3.4.2 Non-Catalytic Transesterification 1785.3.5 Optimization Methodology for Biodiesel 1795.3.5.1 Central Composite Design Technique 1795.3.5.2 Box Behnken Technique 1795.4 Properties of Biodiesel 1805.5 Analytical Methods 1815.5.1 Titration 1815.5.2 Chromatic Methods 1815.5.2.1 Gas Chromatography 1835.5.2.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography 1845.5.3 Spectroscopic Methods 1845.5.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1845.5.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy 1855.5.4 Rancimat Method 1855.5.5 Viscometry 1865.6 Conclusion 186References 1876 Commercial Technologies for Biodiesel Production 195Chikati Roick, Leonard Okonye, Nkazi Diankanua and Gorimbo JoshuaAbbreviation 1966.1 Introduction 1966.2 Biodiesel Production 1976.3 Technologies Used for Biodiesel Production 1986.3.1 Chemical Reaction (Transesterification) 1996.3.2 Thermochemical Conversion 1996.3.3 Biomechanical Conversion 2016.3.4 Direct Combustion 2016.4 Other Technologies in Use for Biodiesel Production 2016.5 Feedstock Requirement 2036.6 Some Problems Facing Commercialization of Biodiesel in Africa 2036.7 Case Studies/Current Status and Future Potential 2046.8 Conclusions 207Acknowledgments 208References 2087 A Global Scenario of Sustainable Technologies and Progress in a Biodiesel Production 215M. B. Kumbhar, P. E. Lokhande,, U. S. Chavan and V.G. Salunkhe7.1 Introduction 2167.2 Current Status of Feedstock for Biodiesel Production Technology 2187.3 Scenario of Biodiesel in Combustion Engine 2227.4 Biodiesel Production Technologies 2237.4.1 Direct Blending 2237.4.2 Pyrolysis 2247.4.3 Microemulsification 2257.4.4 Transesterification 2267.5 Microwave-Mediated Transesterification 2277.6 Ultrasound-Mediated Transesterification 2297.7 Catalysis in Biodiesel Production 2307.7.1 Homogeneous Catalysts 2307.7.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts 2317.7.3 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts 2327.7.4 Supercritical Fluids 2327.7.5 Biocatalysts 2327.8 The Concept of Biorefinery 2347.9 Summary and Outlook 2367.10 Conclusion 237References 2378 Biodiesel Production Technologies 241Moina Athar and Sadaf Zaidi8.1 Introduction 2428.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks 2428.2.1 Selection of Feedstocks 2438.3 Biodiesel Production Technologies 2488.3.1 Pyrolysis 2488.3.2 Dilution 2498.3.3 Micro-Emulsion 2498.3.4 Transesterification 2498.3.4.1 Homogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 2508.3.4.2 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 2528.3.4.3 Enzymatic Catalyzed Transesterification Processes 2528.4 Intensification Techniques for Biodiesel Production 2538.4.1 Supercritical Alcohol Method 2538.4.2 Microwave Heating 2538.4.3 Ultrasonic Irradiation 2558.4.4 Co-Solvent Method 2568.5 Other Techniques of Biodiesel Production 256References 2579 Methods for Biodiesel Production 267M.Gul, M.A. Mujtaba, H.H. Masjuki, M.A. Kalam and N.W.M. Zulkifli9.1 Selection of Feedstock for Biodiesel 2679.1.1 First-Generation Feedstock 2689.1.2 Second-Generation Feedstock 2689.1.3 Third-Generation Feedstock 2699.2 Methods for Biodiesel Production 2699.2.1 Dilution With Hydrocarbons Blending 2699.2.2 Micro-Emulsion 2699.2.3 Pyrolysis (Thermal Cracking) 2709.2.4 Transesterification (Alcoholysis) 2719.2.4.1 In Situ Transesterification (Reactive Extraction) 2719.2.4.2 Conventional Transesterification 2729.2.4.3 Microwave/Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification 2789.2.4.4 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction 278References 28210 Non-Edible Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 285Chikati Roick, Kabir Opeyemi Otun, Nkazi Diankanua and Gorimbo JoshuaList of Abbreviations 28610.1 Introduction 28610.2 Reports Relevant to Global Warming and Renewable Energy 28710.3 Biofuels as an Alternative Energy Source 28810.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels 28810.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 28910.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 29010.4 Benefits of Using Biodiesel 29010.5 Technologies of Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible Feedstock 29110.6 Biodiesel Production by Transesterification 29210.7 Non-Edible Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production 29510.7.1 Non-Edible Vegetable Oils 29610.7.2 Waste Cooking Oil 29710.7.3 Algal Oil 29810.7.4 Waste Animal Fat/Oil 29910.8 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Obtained From Non-Edible Feedstock 29910.9 Advantages of Non-Edible Feedstocks 30210.10 Economic Importance of Biodiesel Production 30210.11 Conclusions 303Acknowledgments 303References 30411 Oleochemical Resources for Biodiesel Production 311Gayathri R., Ranjitha J. and Vijayalakshmi Shankar11.1 Introduction 31111.2 Definition of Oleochemicals 31211.3 Oleochemical Types 31311.4 Production of Biodiesel 31511.5 Types of Feedstocks 31711.5.1 Non-Edible Feedstocks 31711.5.2 Non-Edible Vegetable Oil 31711.5.3 Tall Oil 31811.5.4 Waste Cooking Oils 31811.5.5 Animal Fats 31811.5.6 Chicken Fat 31911.5.7 Lard 31911.5.8 Tallow 32011.5.9 Leather Industry Solid Waste Fat 32111.5.10 Fish Oil 32211.6 Uses of Oleochemicals 32211.6.1 Polymer Applications 32211.6.2 Application of Plant Oil as a Substitute for Petro-Diesel 32311.6.3 Used as Surfactants 32311.6.4 Oleochemicals Used in Pesticide 32411.6.5 Oleochemicals Used in Spray Adjuvants and Solvents 32411.7 Methyl Ester or Biodiesel Production 32411.7.1 Palm Oil 32611.7.2 Sunflower Oil 32611.7.3 ME From AFW 32711.8 Parameters Affecting the Yield of Biodiesel 32711.8.1 Reaction Conditions 32711.8.2 Catalyst 32711.8.2.1 Alkali Catalyst 32711.8.2.2 Acid Catalyst 32911.8.2.3 Biocatalyst 32911.8.2.4 Heterogeneous Catalyst 32911.8.2.5 ME Conversion by Supercritical Method 32911.8.3 Properties of Feedstock 33011.8.3.1 Composition of FA 33011.8.3.2 FFA 33011.8.3.3 Heat 33011.8.3.4 Presence of Unwanted Materials 33011.8.3.5 Titer 33211.8.4 Characteristic of Feedstock 33211.9 Optimization of Reactions Conditions for High Yield and Quality of Biodiesel 33211.9.1 Pre-Treatment of Feedstock 33211.9.1.1 Elimination of Water 33211.9.1.2 Elimination of Insoluble Impurities 33211.9.1.3 Elimination of Unsaponifiables 33311.9.2 Characterization and Selection of Feedstocks 33311.9.3 Selection of Reaction Conditions 33311.10 Oil Recovery 33311.10.1 Alkaline Flooding Method 33311.10.2 Additives 33411.11 Quality Improvement of Biodiesel 33411.11.1 Additives for Improving Combustion Ability 33411.11.2 Additives for Enhancing the Octane Number 33411.11.3 Additives for Improving the Stability 33411.11.4 Additives to Enhance Cold Flow Property 33411.11.5 Additives to Enhance Lubricity 33511.11.6 Additives to Enhance Cetane Number 33511.12 Conclusion 335Abbreviations 335References 33612 Overview on Different Reactors for Biodiesel Production 341V. C. Akubude, K.F. Jaiyeoba, T.F Oyewusi, E.C. Abbah, J.A. Oyedokun and V.C. Okafor12.1 Introduction 34112.2 Biodiesel Production Reactors 34212.2.1 Batch Reactor 34312.2.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor 34412.2.3 Fixed Bed Reactor 34612.2.4 Bubble Column Reactor 34712.2.5 Reactive Distillation Column 34912.2.6 Hybrid Catalytic Plasma Reactor 35012.2.7 Microreactors Technology 35012.2.8 Oscillatory Flow Reactors 35312.2.9 Other Novel Reactors 35312.3 Future Prospects 35412.4 Conclusion 354References 35413 Patents on Biodiesel 361Azira Abdul Razak, Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed and Darfizzi Derawi13.1 Introduction 36113.2 Generation of Biodiesel 36213.3 Development of Catalyst 36313.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst 36413.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst 36413.4 Method Producing Biodiesel 36513.4.1 Pre-Treatment Process 36513.4.2 Direct Use and Blending of Oils 36613.4.3 Esterification of FFA 36613.4.4 Transesterification of TAG 36713.4.5 Pyrolysis 36813.5 Reactor's Technology for Biodiesel Production 36913.5.1 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor 37013.5.2 Fixed Bed Reactor 37013.5.3 Micro-Mixer Reactor 37113.6 Conclusion 372References 37214 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids With an Alcohol Over Acid Materials 377J.E. Castanheiro14.1 Introduction 37714.2 Zeolites 37814.3 SO3H as Catalyst 37914.4 Metal Oxides 38014.5 Heteropolyacids 38214.6 Other Materials 38414.7 Conclusions 384References 38515 Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible and Waste Lipid Sources 389Opeoluwa O. Fasanya, Aishat A. Osigbesan and Onoriode P. Avbenake15.1 Introduction 39015.2 Non-Edible Plant-Based Oils 39415.2.1 Jatropha curcas 39415.2.2 Calophyllum inophyllum 39715.2.3 Mesua ferrea 39715.2.4 Jojoba Oil 39815.2.5 Azadirachta indica 39815.2.6 Rubber Seed Oil 39915.2.7 Ricinus communis as Feedstock (Castor Oil) 40215.2.8 Other Non-Edible Oils 40315.3 Waste Animal Fats 40415.4 Expired and Waste Cooking Oils 40515.5 Algae/Microalgae 40615.6 Insects as Biodiesel Feedstock 41115.7 Deacidification 41415.8 Other Technologies 41415.9 Conclusion 415References 41516 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production 429Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Victoria Olaide Adenigba, Devarajan Thangadura and Mohd Imran Ahamed16.1 Introduction 43016.2 Physicochemical Properties of Biodiesel From Microalgae 43116.3 Genetic Engineering/Techniques Enhancing Biodiesel Production 43216.4 Nanotechnology in Microalgae Biodiesel Production 43416.5 Specific Examples of Biodiesel Production From Microalgae 43416.6 Methodology Involved in the Extraction of Algae 43816.6.1 Chemical Solvents Extraction 43916.6.2 Extraction by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide 43916.6.3 Extraction Using Biochemical Techniques 43916.6.4 Extraction Involving Direct Transesterification 44016.6.5 Extraction Using Transesterification Techniques 44016.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 440References 44117 Biodiesel Production Methods and Feedstocks 447Setareh Heidari and David A. Wood17.1 Introduction 44817.2 Biofuel Classification in Terms of Origin and Technological Conversion of Raw Materials 44917.3 Techniques Capable of Producing Biodiesel on Commercial Scales 45117.3.1 Direct and Blending Methods With the Aim of Biodiesel Generation 45217.3.2 Microemulsion Methods 45217.3.3 Pyrolysis Methods 45317.3.4 Transesterification Methods 45317.4 Influential Parameters on Biodiesel Production 45417.4.1 The Choice of Transesterification Catalysts 45417.4.2 Effects of Catalyst Characteristics on Biodiesel Production Efficiency 45417.5 Biodiesel Markets and Economic Considerations 45517.6 Challenges Confronting Biodiesel Uptake 45617.7 Corrosion and Quality Monitoring Issues for Biodiesel 45717.8 Conclusions 457References 45818 Application of Nanoparticles for the Enhanced Production of Biodiesel 465Muhammad Hilman Mustapha, Akhsan Kamil Azizi, Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed18.1 Introduction 46518.2 Solid Nanoparticles 46618.3 Nanobioparticles/Nanobiocatalyst 47118.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles 47318.5 How Nanoparticles Enhanced Biodiesel Production? 47518.6 Conclusion 477References 477Index 481

O autorze

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning.Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters.Mashallah Rezakazemi, PhD, received his doctorate from the University of Tehran (UT) in 2015. In his first appointment, he served as associate professor in the Faculty of Chemical and Materials Engineering at Shahrood University of Technology. He has co-authored in more than 140 highly cited journal publications, conference articles and book chapters. He has received numerous major awards and grants from various funding agencies in recognition of his research. Notable among these are Khwarizmi Youth Award from the Iranian Research Organization for Science and Technology (IROST), and the Outstanding Young Researcher Award in Chemical Engineering from the Academy of Sciences of Iran. He was named a top 1% most Highly Cited Researcher by Web of Science (ESI).