Arc Welding Processes Handbook

ISBN-13: 9781119819059 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 416 str.

Ramesh Singh

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List of Figures xviiList of Tables xxvForeword xxixPreface xxxi1 Introduction to Welding Processes 11.1 Synopsis 11.2 Keywords 11.3 Welding 11.4 Defining Welding 21.5 Welding and Joining Processes 31.6 Arc Welding 31.6.1 Carbon Arc Welding 31.6.2 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 31.6.3 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) 41.6.4 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) 71.6.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 71.7 Efficiency of Energy Use 71.8 Welding Procedures 81.9 Qualification of Welders and Operators 112 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) 132.1 Synopsis 132.2 Keywords 132.3 Introduction 132.4 Process Fundamentals 142.5 How the Process Works 152.6 Power Sources 162.6.1 Constant Current and Constant Voltage Power Source 172.6.2 Constant Current Curve 182.6.3 Constant Voltage Curve 182.7 AC Power Sources 182.7.1 The Alternator Type AC Welding Machines 192.7.2 Movable Coil Type Control 202.7.3 Movable Shunt Type Control 202.7.4 Movable Core (Reactor) Type of Control 202.7.5 Magnetic Amplifier Method of Current Control 212.7.6 Diode 222.7.7 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) 232.7.8 Transistors 242.8 Direct Current Power Sources 242.8.1 Generator 262.8.2 Alternator 272.8.2.1 Power Source Remote Control 292.8.3 Installation of Welding Machines 292.8.3.1 Cooling System for Welding Power Sources 302.8.3.2 Welding Connections - Welding Cable and Electrode Holders 302.8.4 Electrode Holders 312.8.5 Arc Welding Power Source Classification by NEMA 322.8.5.1 Duty Cycle 332.8.5.2 Power Requirement 342.9 Welding Safety and Personal Protecting Equipment 342.9.1 Shields and Helmets 342.9.2 Optical Clarity for Welding 372.9.3 Other Essential Clothing for Welders 382.10 Covered Electrodes Used in SMAW Process 392.10.1 Coating Types 392.10.1.1 Cellulose-Coated Electrodes 402.10.1.2 Rutile-Coated Electrodes 402.10.1.3 Basic-Coated Electrodes 402.10.2 Portfolio of SMAW Electrode 412.10.3 Identification of Welding Electrode 412.10.4 Need for the Covered Electrode 452.10.5 Electrode Conditioning 452.11 Welding Training - Making of a Welder 472.11.1 Joint Design and Preparation 472.11.2 SMAW Welding of Plate 502.11.3 Making of a SMAW Welder 502.11.3.1 SMAW Welding Practice Step 1 512.11.3.2 SMAW Welding Practice Step 2 522.11.3.3 SMAW Welding Practice Step 3 562.11.4 Inspection of the Weld 572.11.4.1 Appearance of the Weld 572.11.5 Step 3 Practice 2 592.11.6 SMAW Welding Step 4 592.11.7 SMAW Welding Step 5 602.11.8 Set a Next Goal to Achieve 612.11.9 SMAW Welding of Pipes 622.11.9.1 Pipe Welding Step 1 622.11.10 Pipe Welding Technique and Pipeline Welding 672.11.10.1 Vertical Up Technique 692.11.11 In-Plant Piping 702.11.12 Pipeline Welding 722.11.12.1 Making a Root Pass 722.12 Welding Other Metals 742.12.1 SMAW Welding Aluminum 742.12.2 Aluminum Alloys and Their Characteristics 752.12.2.1 1xxx Series Alloys 752.12.2.2 2xxx Series Alloys 752.12.2.3 3xxx Series Alloys 752.12.2.4 4xxx Series Alloys 762.12.2.5 5xxx Series Alloys 762.12.2.6 6XXX Series Alloys 762.12.2.7 7XXX Series Alloys 772.12.3 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 772.12.4 Wrought Alloy Designation System 782.12.5 Cast Alloy Designation 782.12.6 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 802.12.6.1 Aluminum Welding Electrodes 822.12.6.2 Electrical Parameters 832.12.7 SMAW Welding of Stainless Steel 832.12.8 Introduction to Stainless-Steels 842.12.8.1 Cutting Stainless Steel for Fabrication 842.12.8.2 Finishing 842.12.9 Fabrication of Stainless Steel 852.12.9.1 Why Use Stainless Steel 852.12.10 General Welding Characteristics 852.12.10.1 Protection Against Oxidation 862.12.11 Welding and Joining Stainless Steel 872.12.12 Importance of Cleaning Before and After Welding 872.12.13 Filler Metals 882.12.14 Austenitic Stainless Steels 892.12.14.1 Metallurgical Concerns Associated with Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels 892.12.14.2 Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels 892.12.15 Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels 902.12.16 Super-Austenitic Stainless Steels 912.12.17 Welding and Joining of Supper-Austenitic Stainless Steels 922.12.17.1 Difficulties Associated with Welding Stainless Steel 932.12.18 Martensitic Stainless Steels 962.12.18.1 Properties and Application 962.12.18.2 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 972.12.19 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 982.12.19.1 Properties and Application 982.12.20 Welding Ferritic Steel 992.12.21 Precipitation Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels 1002.12.21.1 Properties and Application of Precipitation Hardening Steels 1002.12.22 Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 1002.13 Welding and Fabrication of Duplex Stainless Steels 1032.13.1 Mechanical Properties 1032.13.2 Heat Treatment 1042.14 SMAW Welding Nickel Alloys 1062.14.1 Welding of Precipitation Hardenable Nickel Alloy 1092.14.2 Welding of Cast Nickel Alloy 1102.14.3 Nickel - Chromium Alloys 1102.14.4 Nickel - Copper (Cupro-Nickle Alloys) 1112.14.5 Nickel - Iron - Chromium Alloys 1112.15 Minimizing Discontinuities in Nickel and Alloys Welds 1122.15.1 Porosity 1122.15.2 Weld Cracking 1132.15.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 1132.15.4 Effect of Slag on Weld Metal 1132.16 Review Your Knowledge 1143 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding 1153.1 Synopsis 1153.2 Keywords 1153.3 Introduction to Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process 1153.4 Process Description 1173.5 How the Process Works 1183.6 Process Advantages and Limitations 1203.7 Power Sources 1223.7.1 AC Power Sources 1223.7.1.1 The Alternator Type AC Welding Machines 1243.7.1.2 Movable Coil Movable Core (Reactor) 1243.7.1.3 Magnetic Amplifier Method of Current Control 1253.7.1.4 AC Inverters for GTAW Process 1253.7.2 Other Control Methods 1263.7.2.1 Wave Forms 1263.7.2.2 Independent Amperage Control 1273.7.2.3 Adjustable AC Output Frequency 1273.7.2.4 Extended Balance Control 1303.7.3 Diode 1323.7.4 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers (SCRs) 1323.7.5 Transistors 1333.7.6 A Direct Current Power Source for GTAW 1343.7.6.1 Generator 1343.7.6.2 Alternator 1363.7.6.3 The Output Current 1373.7.6.4 Duty Cycle 1373.7.7 The Inverter Machines 1383.8 Shielding Gases 1383.9 Gas Regulators and Flowmeters 1393.10 GTAW Torches, Nozzles, Collets, and Gas Lenses 1413.10.1 Gas Lens 1423.11 Tungsten Electrodes 1453.11.1 Grinding of Tungsten Electrode Tips 1463.11.2 Tungsten Grind Angles and How They Affect Weld Penetration 1483.11.2.1 The Impact of Tungsten Tip Angles on Weld 1483.12 Joint Design 1493.13 Power Source Remote Control 1513.14 Installation of Welding Machines 1513.15 Power Source Cooling System 1513.16 Welding Connections - Welding Cable and Welding Torch Connections 1523.17 Welding Power Source Classification by NEMA 1543.18 Welding Personal Protecting Equipment 1553.19 Other Essential Clothing for Welders 1563.20 Filler Wires Used in GTAW Process 1563.21 Classification and Identification of Welding Wires 1573.21.1 Designation of Aluminum Welding Wires 1573.21.2 Aluminum Alloys and Their Characteristics 1583.22 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 1613.22.1 Wrought Alloy Designation System 1613.22.2 Cast Alloy Designation 1623.22.3 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 1623.23 Welding Metals Other Than Carbon and Alloy Steels 1643.24 GTAW Welding of Aluminum 1653.25 GTAW Welding of Stainless Steel 1763.25.1 Introduction to Stainless-Steels 1763.25.1.1 Cutting Stainless Steel for Fabrication 1773.25.1.2 Finishing 1773.25.2 Fabrication of Stainless Steel 1783.25.3 Why Stainless Steel 1783.25.4 General Welding Characteristics 1793.25.5 Protection Against Oxidation 1793.25.6 Welding and Joining 1803.25.7 Importance of Cleaning Before and After Welding 1803.25.8 Filler Metals 1823.25.9 Austenitic Stainless Steels 1823.25.9.1 Metallurgical Concerns Associated with Welding Austenitic Stainless Steels 1823.25.9.2 Mechanical Properties of Stainless Steels 1833.25.9.3 Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steels 1833.25.10 Welding Super-Austenitic Stainless Steels 1853.25.10.1 Material Properties and Applications 1853.25.10.2 Welding and Joining of Supper-Austenitic Stainless Steels 1883.25.10.3 Difficulties Associated with Welding Stainless Steel 1893.25.11 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels - Properties and Application 1903.25.12 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 1913.25.13 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 1923.25.13.1 Welding Ferritic Steel 1933.25.14 Welding Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 1933.25.14.1 Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 1943.26 Mechanical Properties 1953.26.1 Heat Treatment of Duplex Steels 1953.26.2 How to Weld Duplex Stainless Steel 1973.26.2.1 Filler Metal 1973.26.2.2 Heat Input and Interpass Temperatures 1983.26.2.3 Quality Checks 1983.27 Welding Nickel Alloys 1983.27.1 Welding of Precipitation Hardenable Nickel Alloy 2003.27.2 Welding of Cast Nickel Alloy 2003.27.3 Nickel - Chromium Alloys 2003.27.4 Nickel - Copper (Cupro-Nickle Alloys) 2013.27.5 Nickel - Iron - Chromium Alloys 2023.27.6 Minimizing Discontinuities in Nickel and Alloys Welds 2023.27.6.1 Porosity 2033.27.6.2 Weld Cracking 2033.27.6.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 2033.27.6.4 Effect of Inclusions on Weld Metal 2043.28 Later Developments in GTAW Process 2043.29 Plasma Arc Welding 2043.30 Review Your Knowledge 2074 Gas Metal Arc Welding 2094.1 Synopsis 2094.2 Keywords 2094.3 Introduction to Gas Metal Arc Welding Process 2094.3.1 Developmental History of GMAW Process 2094.3.2 The Advantages of GMAW 2134.3.2 Limitations of GMAW 2134.4 Process Description 2144.4.1 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) Process Introduction 2144.4.1.1 Short Circuiting Transfer (GMAW-S) 2174.4.1.2 Globular Transfer 2214.4.1.3 Spray Transfer 2234.4.1.4 Pulsed Spray Transfer Mode 2244.4.2 Gas Metal Arc Welding: Newer Variants 2294.5 Components of the Welding Arc 2314.5.1 Shielding Gases for GMAW 2324.5.1.1 Argon Gas 2334.5.1.2 Helium Gas 2344.5.2 Dissociation and Recombination 2344.5.2.1 Dissociation and Recombination of CO2 Gas 2344.5.2.2 Oxygen as Shielding Gas 2344.5.2.3 Hydrogen Gas 2354.5.3 Binary Shielding Gases 2354.5.3.1 Argon + Helium 2354.5.3.2 Argon + CO2 2354.5.4 Shielding Gases by Transfer Mode 2364.5.4.1 Common Short-Circuiting Transfer 2364.5.4.2 Common Axial Spray Transfer 2364.5.5 Ternary Gas Shielding Blends 2374.5.5.1 Common Ternary Gas Shielding Blends 2374.6 Effects of Variables on Welding 2384.6.1 Current Density 2414.6.2 Electrode Efficiencies 2414.6.2.1 Calculation of Required Electrode Based on the Electrode Efficiency (EE) 2424.6.3 Deposition Rate 2424.6.4 Electrode Extension and Contact Tip to Work Distance 2434.7 Advanced Welding Processes for GMAW 2444.8 The Adaptive Loop 2454.9 Advanced Waveform Control Technology 2464.9.1 Surface Tension Transfer(TM) (STT(TM)) 2464.10 Equipment for GMAW Process 2484.11 GMAW Power Sources 2494.11.1 The Transformer Rectifiers 2494.11.2 Inverters 2504.12 Installation of Welding Machines 2534.12.1 GMAW Torches 2544.12.1.1 Welding Torches for Automation and Robotic GMAW 2574.12.1.2 The Wire Drive and Accessories 2574.12.1.3 Special Wire Feeding Considerations 2584.12.1.4 Shielding Gas Regulation 2594.12.1.5 Welding Cables and Other Accessories 2594.12.1.6 Welding Personal Protecting Equipment 2614.12.1.7 Other Essential Clothing for Welders 2624.13 Welding Various Metals 2624.13.1 Carbon Steel 2634.13.2 Aluminum and Aluminum Welding 2634.13.2.1 Understanding Aluminum 2634.13.2.2 Designation of Aluminum Welding Wires 2644.13.3 Aluminum Metallurgy and Grades 2654.13.3.1 1xxx Series Alloys 2654.13.3.2 2xxx Series Alloys 2654.13.3.3 3xxx Series Alloys 2664.13.3.4 4xxx Series Alloys 2664.13.3.5 5xxx Series Alloys 2664.13.3.6 6XXX Series Alloys 2674.13.3.7 7XXX Series Alloys 2674.13.4 The Aluminum Alloy Temper and Designation System 2674.13.5 Wrought Alloy Designation System 2684.13.6 Cast Alloy Designation 2684.13.7 The Aluminum Temper Designation System 2694.13.8 Welding Aluminum 2714.13.8.1 Electrode Selection 2714.13.9 Welding Stainless Steel with the Gas Metal Arc Process 2714.13.10 Introduction to and Understanding Stainless Steel 2744.13.11 Alloying Elements and Their Impact on Stainless Steel 2754.13.11.1 The Elements that Promote Ferrite are 2764.13.11.2 The Elements that Promote Austenite are 2764.13.11.3 Neutral Effect Regarding Austenite & Ferrite 2764.13.12 Weldability of Stainless Steels 2764.13.12.1 Welding Austenitic Steels 2764.13.12.2 Challenges of Welding Austenitic Steels 2774.13.12.3 Sensitization 2774.13.12.4 Intergranular Corrosion in the Heat Affected Zone Control of Carbide Precipitation 2784.13.12.5 Hot Cracking 2794.13.12.6 Design for Welding Stainless Steels 2804.13.12.7 Determining and Measuring the Ferrite in Welds 2814.13.12.8 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 2824.13.12.9 Properties and Application 2824.13.12.10 Welding Ferritic Steel 2834.13.12.11 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels 2834.13.12.12 Welding Precipitation Hardened (PH) Steels 2844.13.12.13 Martensitic Stainless Steels 2854.13.12.14 Properties and Application 2854.13.12.15 Welding Martensitic Stainless Steels 2854.13.12.16 Duplex Stainless Steels 2874.13.12.17 Mechanical Properties 2874.13.12.18 Heat Treatment 2884.14 Welding Nickel Alloys 2894.14.1 Welding of Precipitation Hardenable Nickel Alloy 2914.14.2 Welding of Cast Nickel Alloy 2914.14.3 Nickel - Chromium Alloys 2914.14.4 Nickel - Copper (Cupro-Nickle Alloys) 2924.14.5 Nickel - Iron - Chromium Alloys 2934.15 Minimizing Discontinuities in Nickel and Alloys Welds 2934.15.1 Porosity 2944.15.2 Weld Cracking 2944.15.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking 2954.15.4 Effect of Slag on Weld Metal 2954.16 Calculating Heat Input in Pulsed Arc GMAW 2954.17 Review Your Knowledge 2965 Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Process 2995.1 Synopsis 2995.2 Keywords 2995.3 Introduction to Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) Process 2995.4 Process Description 3015.4.1 Self Shielding Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW-S) Process 3025.4.2 Flux Core Arc Welding (FCAW-G) Gas Shielding Process 3035.5 Welding Wires/Electrodes 3045.5.1 Construction of FCAW Electrodes 3065.5.2 Sheath Thickness Variations 3075.5.3 Important FCAW Variables 3075.5.4 Contact Tip to Work Distance (CTWD) 3075.5.5 Travel Angle 3075.5.6 Single Pass Limitations 3085.5.7 Thickness Restrictions 3085.5.8 Charpy V-Notch Toughness Properties 3085.5.9 Electrode Care and Packaging 3085.6 Power Sources 3105.6.1 Arc Voltage (Constant Voltage) 3105.6.2 CTWD, ESO and WFS 3115.7 Other Accessories to Power Source 3135.7.1 Welding Cable 3135.7.2 Semiautomatic Wire Feeders 3135.7.3 Welding Guns 3135.7.4 Reverse Bend Gun Tubes 3135.7.5 Gun Angles 3145.7.6 Polarity 3145.8 Shielding Gases 3145.8.1 Attributes of Shielding Gases 3155.8.2 How Shielding Gas Works? 3155.8.3 Properties of Shielding Gases 3155.8.4 Limits on the Use of Inert Gases 3165.8.5 Argon and Carbon Dioxide Gas Blends 3165.8.6 How the Shielding Gas and Blends Affect the Mechanical Properties of the Weld Metal? 3175.8.7 Understanding the Performance of Various FCAW-G Gases 3195.8.7.1 Shielding Gas Cost 3195.8.7.2 Overall Operator Appeal and Impact on Productivity 3195.8.7.3 Typical Use of Shielding Gas 3215.9 Welding Various Metals 3215.9.1 Applicable Base Metals 3225.9.2 Types of Welding Procedure Specifications (WPS) 3235.9.3 FCAW Welding Austenitic, Ferritic Stainless Steels and Duplex Steels 3235.9.3.1 Stainless Steel 3235.9.3.2 Duplex Steels 3245.9.3.3 Welding Ferritic Stainless Steels 3245.9.3.4 Choice of Shielding Gases 3245.9.4 FCAW Welding of Aluminum 3245.9.5 Welding Nickel and Nickel Alloys by FCAW Process 3255.10 Tips for Good Welding by FCAW Process 3255.11 Test Your Knowledge 3266 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) 3296.1 Synopsis 3296.2 Keywords 3296.3 Introduction to Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Process 3296.4 Operating Characteristics 3336.5 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Process 3346.5.1 Advantages and Limitations of Submerged Arc Welding 3346.6 How the SAW Process Works 3356.6.1 Depositing a Root Pass with SAW Process 3356.6.2 Travel Mechanism 3356.6.3 Variables of the SAW Process 3366.7 SAW Process Variants 3376.7.1 Variants Based on Use of Welding Wire 3386.7.1.1 Multi-Wire Systems 3386.7.1.2 Use of Hot-Wire 3386.7.2 Adding Iron Powder to the Flux 3396.7.3 The Utilization of a Strip Electrode for Surfacing 3406.8 SAW Power Source and Equipment 3406.9 Welding Heads (Gun) 3406.10 Fluxes 3416.10.1 Types of Granular Fluxes 3416.10.2 Fused Fluxes versus Bonded Fluxes 3426.10.3 Fused Fluxes 3426.10.4 Bonded Fluxes 3426.10.5 Neutral Fluxes 3436.10.6 Acid Fluxes 3436.10.7 Basic Fluxes 3436.10.8 Selection of Specific Flux 3456.11 Submerged Arc Welding Various Metals 3456.12 Test Your Knowledge 3477 Useful Data and Information Related to Welding and Fabrication 3497.1 Common Weld Symbols and Their Meanings 3497.2 Fillet Welds 3517.3 Groove Welds 3537.4 Pipe Schedule 3597.5 Terms and Abbreviations 3607.5.1 ASME Section IX QW 432 - F Number Table for Carbon and Alloy Steel 3637.6 Procedure Qualification Range as Per the Material Group 3647.7 Material Qualification Rage for Procedure Qualification Based on P-Numbers 3647.8 Temperature Conversion 3657.9 Useful Calculations 3677.10 Effect of Temperature on Gas Cylinder Pressure 368Index 369

O autorze

Ramesh Singh, MS, IEng, MWeldI, is registered as Incorporated Engineer with the British Engineering Council UK and a Member of The Welding Institute, UK. He worked as an engineer for various operating and EPC organizations in the Middle East, Canada, and the US. Most recently, he worked for 10 years with Gulf Interstate Engineering, Houston, TX. He is now consulting in the fields of welding, and corrosion engineering, and pipeline integrity and related materials and corrosion topics. Ramesh is a graduate of the Indian Air Force Technical Academy, with diplomas in Structural Fabrication Engineering and Welding Technology. He has been a member and officer of the Canadian Standard Association and NACE and serves on several technical committees. He has worked in industries spanning aeronautical, alloy steel castings, fabrication, machining, welding engineering, petrochemical, and oil and gas. He has written several technical papers and published articles in leading industry magazines, addressing the practical aspects of welding, construction, and corrosion issues relating to structures, equipment, and pipelines.