Traces China's transformations with a focus on China's incorporation process in the nineteenth century, which help to grasp the historical origins of China's capitalism. As Europe's colonial powers reached China in the nineteenth century, they became so strong that China could no longer ignore them. Given that the unprecedented geographical expansion of the European system undermined a China-centered world order and brought unprecedented changes to Chinese society, an intriguing question—why and how the Chinese empire entered into the capitalist world economy—has attracted increasing...