The rapid increase in the number of automobiles has led to significant environmental problems, particularly car exhaust pollution. Vehicle exhaust emissions are a major contributor to environmental issues such as smog, ozone depletion, acid rain, as well as serious respiratory diseases and carcinogens. The environmental problems caused by the growing number of automobiles cannot be addressed solely by the natural self-purification capability. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is widely used in research on road materials for reducing vehicle emissions due to its excellent corrosion resistance, strong...