Immunology is a branch of science that deals with study of immune system (immune organs, cells and molecules) in an organism, its physiological function in states of both health and diseases ( hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, transplantation); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system. Immunology has applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

Protection against schistosomiasis using homologous antigens has been studied extensively in experimentally infected mammalian hosts. Heterologous antigens have received comparatively less attention. Antigens against schistosomiasis suggest that this approach to diminished morbidity and mortality and reduced transmission is a realistic goal, in addition to protective effects with significant worm burden reductions, some vaccine candidates also have anti-fecundity, anti-pathology and anti-embryonation effects. Schistosomes and echinostomes are two groups of digenean trematodes that co-occur...

T lymphocytes play central roles in all adaptive immune responses against protein antigens. In cell-mediated immunity, CD4 T cells activate macropnages to destroy phagocytosed microbes, and CD8 T cells kill cells infected with intracellular microbes. In Humoral immunity, CD4 helper T cells interact with B lymphocytes and stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of these B cells. Both the induction phase and the effector phase of T cell responses are triggered by the specific recognition of antigen. T cells recognize antigens only in the form of peptides displayed by the products of...