The Civil War in 1861 found Southerners a minority throughout the West. Early efforts to create military forces were quickly suppressed by the Yankees. Unable to control their local territories, many returned to the South to fight while others remained where they were, forming a potentially disloyal population. Underground movements developed and existed throughout the war in Colorado, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona and even Idaho. Repeatedly betrayed and overawed by Union forces and without communications with the South, these groups generally were ineffective.

In southern...