As knowledge increasingly replaces raw materials and labor as a key resource in economic development, the availability of human knowledge and skills is critical in determining a country's rate of economic development and its competitiveness in international markets. The growing use of national assessment capacity has enabled ministries of education across the world to describe national levels of learning achievement in key subject areas; compare achievement levels of key subgroups, such as boys and girls, ethnic groups, urban and rural students, and public and private school students; and...