Since the 1960s, zoos and aquariums have been challenged by animal rights activists, regulatory agencies, anti-tax advocates, and an assortment of litigators. This study draws upon interviews, archival sources, Congressional records, court cases, regulatory hearings, media accounts, and the authors' field research.

Since the 1960s, zoos and aquariums have been repeatedly challenged by animal rights activists, regulatory agencies, anti-tax advocates, and an assortment of litigators. Working through the American Zoological Association, these institutions learned to use the U.S. political system to their advantage and, simultaneously, crafted a more progressive public mission. This original study draws upon interviews, archival sources, Congressional records, court cases, regulatory hearings, media accounts, and the authors' ongoing field research.