operating foundations with corporate, family, and community origins.

This study focuses on the genesis of Peru's 20th century economic elite, the so-called Peruvian oligarchy. It argues that it is wrong to consider this group just as a historical continuation of the colonial merchant aristocracy or the coastal plutocracy of the Guano Age. Using new historical evidence, it shows how in the growth period of post- war reconstruction in the late 19th century, nouveaux riches found profitable new investment possibilities. This elite consisted of not just limenos and provincianos (two thirds of the sample), but immigrants from Italy, Germany, Spain, France, and...