Everyone knows that the universe is extremely old and extremely large. But how did scientists determine just how old and how large? How do astronomers know that there are upwards of 100 billion galaxies in the universe if the nearest one is over 40,000 light-years away? How do we know what the stars are made of? The answer is that our current knowledge of the universe has arisen from the work and ideas of scientists and philosophers over hundreds of years. While it's only been during the last several decades that scientists have had the technology and theories to really understand how the...

Humans have tried to figure out what formed the landscape of the earth for thousands of years. How were mountains created? Where did lakes and rivers come from? What lies under the surface of the earth? And one concept that greatly aided the scientific advance of the earth sciences was that of geological cycles. Once scientists understood that many geological actions are cyclic, the scientific knowledge of the earth exploded. These ideas are central to the nature of the earth sciences, and appreciating how scientists arrived at these ideas is essential for understanding the nature of the...

Students in an introductory physics class learn a variety of different, and seemingly unconnected, concepts. Gravity, the laws of motion, forces and fields, the mathematical nature of the science - all of these are ideas that play a central role in understanding physics. And one thing that connects all of these physical concepts is the impetus the great scientists of the past had to develop them - the desire to understand the motion of the planets of the solar system. This desire led to the revolutionary work of Copernicus and Galileo, Kepler and Newton. And their work forever altered how...

One of the most familiar features of any high-school chemistry lab is the Periodic Table of Elements. Elegant, informative, useful to any student in the lab - the Periodic Table neatly summarizes our scientific knowledge of the chemical elements from hydrogen to uranium and beyond - atomic number, atomic weight, isotopes, and more. But how did scientists discover all of these features of the elements? How did the Periodic Table come to be? And, even more basically, how did the concept of the chemical element come to dominate how scientists understand chemistry? This book shows readers the...

Heat and energy form the backbone of modern physics, but the ideas are not intuitive for most students beginning their study of physics. Instructors spend much valuable time in the classroom and lab explaining such concepts as entropy, thermodynamics, and the conservation of energy. But, as educators know, such ideas can become clearer if students learn how the scientists who developed these concepts came to their discoveries through experimentation and observation. This volume in the "Greenwood Guide to Great Ideas in Science" series provides a historical perspective to heat and...

All students of physics need to understand the basic concepts of electricity and magnetism. E&M is central to the study of physics, and central to understanding the developments of the last two hundred years of not just science, but technology and society in general. But the core of electricity and magnetism can be difficult to understand - many of the ideas are counterintuitive and difficult to appreciate. This volume in the Greenwood Guides to Great Ideas in Science series traces the central concepts of electricity and magnetism from the ancient past to the present day, enabling students...

Quantum mechanics is one of the great success stories of modern physics, making sense of the very small just as Einstein's theory of relativity made sense of the very large. But, for most students, the ideas that make quantum mechanics powerful can be confusing and counterintuitive. This volume in the Greenwood Guides to Great Ideas in Science series provides a history of quantum mechanics from the early breakthroughs of Planck and Einstein, at the beginning of the 20th century, to the present frontiers of quantum computing and quantum gravity. The approach is entirely non-technical, and...

Genetics is one of the most powerful scientific fields today. It is transforming how we view medicine and public health, and is producing tremendous new discoveries in biotechnology. Advances in genetics also provoke extensive ethical debates over cloning, genetic counseling, stem cell research, and privacy. But to understand these debates, it's essential to understand where these ideas came from - the ideas of the past have had tremendous influence on not just the science of genetics, but on the political and ethical debates surrounding the field. This volume in the Greenwood Guides to...

What is evolution? Few ideas are more controversial - and more misunderstood - than the biological theory of evolution. But it's also the case that, as a great scientist once said, Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution. So, if students want to truly understand biology in all of its forms, they will need to understand what evolution - the scientific idea - is. This volume in the Greenwood Guides to Great Ideas in Science series enables the reader to learn what evolution is by charting the course of the ideas of biological change from the ancient time to the...

Force is one of the most elementary concepts that must be understood in order to understand modern science; it is discussed extensively in textbooks at all levels and is a requirement in most science guidelines. It is also one of the most challenging - how could one idea be involved in such disparate physical phenomena as gravity and radioactivity? "Forces in Physics" helps the science student by explaining how these ideas originally were developed and provides context to the stunning conclusions that scientists over the centuries have arrived at. It covers the history of all of the four...