Challenges to American college and university affirmative action and racial and ethnic diversity initiatives were resolved by the Supreme Court in its 2003 decisions in the University of Michigan case. Those decisions affirmed, as a compelling interest, the attainment of racially diverse student bodies in higher education. The Court's decisions and the predicted increases over the next decade in the numbers of race and ethnic group high school graduates have reinforced and in some cases strengthened the resolve of college and university officials that the positive returns from affirmative...