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Focusing on monetization of international trade per se, this text analyses common financial practices of merchants and manufacturers, commercial banks, and central banks.

The world dollar standard is an accident of history that greatly facilitates international trade and exchange-even trade not directly involving the United States. Since 1945, the dollar has been the key currency for clearing international payments among banks including interventions by governments to set exchange rates, the dominant currency for invoicing trade in primary commodities, and the principal currency in official exchange reserves.

Although the strong network effects of the dollar standard greatly increases the financial efficiency of multilateral trade, nobody loves it. Erratic...

Traces the struggle between US and Japanese semiconductor producers from its origins in the 1950s to the novel experiment with "managed trade" embodied in the US-Japan Semiconductor Trade Arrangements of 1986, and the current debate over continuation of elements of that agreement.