Cadmium

ISBN-13: 9783642708589 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 400 str.

A. Bernard;A.C. Chang;M.M. El-Amamy

Opis

The toxic properties of cadmium compounds have been well recognized in many species. There is little evidence to suggest a physiologic role for the metal. Rather, because of its long biologic half-life, cadmium acts as a cumulative poison, and even at quite low ambient concentrations, it can accumulate in mammals to values not insignificant in terms of critical toxic levels. The problem of cadmium toxicity has become especially important, as cadmium concentrations in the environment have begun to rise owing to a variety of human activities such as mining, the metallurgical industry, coal combustion, and the use of cadmium-containing fertilizers. It seemed appropriate, therefore, to assemble in one volume an up-to-date analysis of the mechanism of action of cadmium on biologic systems. Aspects of this field have repeatedly been reviewed in the past, and particular reference must be made to the volumes prepared by FRIBERG and collaborators from Sweden. Much outstanding work on cadmium has also been reported from Japan, and I am happy that investigators from both countries were able to contribute to the present volume. Obviously, this volume does not report a consensus by its contributors. The purpose of the work was to permit leading investigators in the field to present a critical review with sufficient documentation to support their interpretations and conclusions. A certain amount of overlap and disagreement between chapters was therefore unavoidable. The result, I hope, will be a useful state-of-the-art discussion.

Spis treści

1 The Estimation of Cadmium in Biological Samples.- A. Brief Survey of Cadmium Chemistry.- B. Analytic Methods for Cadmium.- I. Atomic Absorption and Emission Spectrometry.- II. Polarography.- III. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis.- IV. Neutron Activation Analysis.- V. Isotope Dilution Method.- References.- 2 Cadmium in the Environment and its Entry into Terrestrial Food Chain Crops.- A. Introduction.- B. Natural Occurence.- C. World Production.- D. Consumption.- I. Electroplating.- II. Pigments and Chemicals.- III. Alloys.- IV. Other Uses.- E. Cadmium in Noncontaminated and Contaminated Soils.- I. Natural Levels in Soils.- II. Sources and Extent of Cadmium Contamination of Soils.- III. Soil Factors Influencing the Accumulation of Cadmium by Food Chain Crops.- F. Phytotoxic Effects of Cadmium.- G. Concentrations of Cadmium in Food Chain Crops.- H. Human Intake of Cadmium.- J. Methods to Control the Entry of Cadmium into Food Chain Crops.- K. Summary.- References.- 3 Absorption of Cadmium.- A. Introduction.- B. Routes of Exposure.- I. Lungs.- II. Skin.- III. Intestine.- C. Mechanism of Intestinal Cd Absorption.- I. General.- II. Methods of Study.- III. Kinetics.- IV. Role of the Brush Border.- V. Interaction Between Cd and Other Metals.- VI. Conclusions.- D. Control of Cd Absorption.- I. Introduction.- II. Endogenous Factors.- III. Influence of Diet.- E. Summary.- References.- 4 The Chronic Toxicity of Cadmium: Influence of Environmental and Other Variables.- A. Introduction.- B. Environmental Pollution with Cadmium and Health Effects.- I. Itai-Itai Disease.- II. An Episode in Annaka District, Japan.- III. Other Episodes in Japan.- IV. Episodes in Europe.- C. Renal Effects.- I. Renal Effects Among Residents in Cadmium-Polluted Areas in Japan.- II. Mortality Study on Residents in Cadmium-Polluted Areas.- D. Skeletal Effects of Cadmium.- I. Itai-Itai Disease.- II. Epidemiologic Studies on Residents in Cadmium-Polluted Areas.- III. Animal Experiments.- IV. Discussion at the International Conference on Cadmium-Induced Osteopathy.- E. Blood Pressure, Cerebrovascular Disease, and Heart Disease.- I. Depressed Blood Pressure.- II. Epidemiologic Studies on Mortality from Cerebrovascular Disease and Heart Disease.- F. Recovery from Cadmium-Induced Health Effects.- G. Chemical Forms of Cadmium in Food and Health Effects.- H. Elevated Sensitivity to Cadmium.- I. Aging.- II. Protein-Calorie Malnutrition.- III. Environmental Temperature.- IV. Combination of Hot Environment and Protein-Calorie Malnutrition.- J. Metal Shift in Cadmium Intoxication.- K. Biologic Monitoring of Cadmium Exposure.- I. Urinary Cadmium.- II. In Vivo Determination of Organ Cadmium.- L. Estimation of Allowable Intake of Cadmium.- I. Biologic Half-Life of Cadmium in the Renal Cortex.- II. Critical Concentration of Cadmium in the Renal Cortex.- References.- 5 Effects of Cadmium Exposure in Humans.- A. Introduction.- B. Human Exposure to Cadmium.- I. Environmental Exposure.- II. Industrial Exposure.- III. Tobacco Smoke.- C. Metabolism.- I. Absorption.- II. Distribution.- III. Excretion.- IV. Evaluation of Cadmium Exposure.- D. Acute Toxicity.- I. Acute Toxicity by Inhalation.- II. Acute Toxicity by Ingestion.- E. Chronic Toxicity.- I. Effects on the Bones.- II. Effects on the Lung.- III. Effects on the Kidney.- IV. Effects on the Cardiovascular System: Hypertension.- V. Carcinogenicity.- VI. Other Effects.- VII. Dose-Effect and Dose-Response Relationships.- References.- 6 The Nephropathy of Chronic Cadmium Poisoning.- A. Introduction.- B. Uptake, Storage, and Turnover of Cadmium in the Kidneys.- C. Effects on Tubular Function.- I. Proteinuria.- II. Glucosuria and Aminoaciduria.- III. Disturbances in Mineral Metabolism.- D. Effects on Glomerular Function.- E. Diagnosis.- F. Prognosis.- G. Prevention.- References.- 7 Cadmium and the Cardiovascular System.- A. Preface.- I. Regulatory Aspects of Cardiovascular Function: Intrinsic Considerations.- II. Extrinsic Considerations.- B. Historical Overview.- C. Actions of Cadmium on the Myocardium.- I. Actions of Cadmium Affecting Myocardial Inotropism.- II. Actions of Cadmium Affecting Cardiac Excitability.- D. Vascular Actions of Cadmium.- I. Introduction.- II. Vascular Responses to Cadmium.- III. Reactivity of Vascular Tissue Following Chronic or Acute Cadmium-Treatment.- E. The Cadmium Hypertension Controversy.- I. Experimental Animal Studies.- Appendix A.- Appendix B.- References.- 8 Role of Metallothionein in Cadmium Metabolism.- A. Introduction.- B. Historical Background and Chemistry of the Metallothioneins.- C. Determination of Metallothionein Concentrations in Mammalian Tissues.- D. Metallothionein and the Metabolism of Cadmium.- E. Metallothionein Synthesis in Relation to the Chronic Toxicity of Cadmium.- F. Metallothionein Synthesis in Relation to the Acute Toxicity of Cadmium.- I. Normal Animals.- II. Cd-Pretreated Animals.- G. Kidney Uptake, Metabolism and Toxicity of Exogenous Metallothionein.- H. Function of Metallothionein in the Transport of Cd from the Liver to the Kidney.- J. Normal Functions of Metallothionein and the Interactions of Cd with these Functions.- K. Function of Metallothionein in the Reproductive Toxicology of Cd: Role in Perinatal Development.- L. Metallothionein: A Limiting Factor in the Chelation Therapy of Cd Intoxication.- References.- 9 Immunotoxicity of Cadmium.- A. The Immune System.- B. Immunoassays.- C. Effects of Cadmium on Immune Responses.- I. Host Resistance.- II. Antibody Synthesis and B-Cells.- III. Cell-Mediated Immunity and T-Cells.- IV. Macrophage Function.- V. Other Immunologically Related Effects.- D. Summary.- References.- 10 The Effect of Dietary Selenium on Cadmium Cardiotoxicity.- A. Introduction.- B. Cadmium and the Heart.- C. Selenium Deficiency and Cardiomyopathy.- D. Cadmium-Selenium Interactions.- E. Cadmium-Copper Interactions.- F. Cadmium-Metallothionein Studies.- G. Investigations into the Mechanism of Cadmium Cardiotoxicity.- I. The Idea.- II. The Experiment.- H. Physiologic Studies.- J. Conclusions.- References.- 11 Cellular Resistance to Cadmium.- A. Introduction.- B. Cultured Cell Systems for Studying Cd Metabolism.- I. Use of Cultured Cell Systems to Study the Roles of Metallothionein in the Cellular Response to Cd.- II. Cd Uptake.- III. Use of Cultured Cell Systems to Study Cd Responses Other than Uptake or Cytotoxicity.- IV. Use of Freshly Cultured Blood Cells to Study Variation in Human Response to Cd.- C. Role of Metallothionein in Cellular Cd Resistance.- I. Metallothionein Production is Regulated at Several Levels.- II. Role of Metallothionein in Cellular Cd Resistance in Cultured Human Blood Cells.- D. Non-Metallothionein Mechanisms of Cellular Cd Resistance.- E. Models Describing Cd Metabolism and the Role of Metallothionein and Other Factors in Resistance and Sensitivity.- F. Future Directions.- I. Models.- II. Cd Toxicity Targets.- III. Gene Expression Domains.- IV. Non-Metallothionein Protective Mechanisms.- V. Role of Cd in Altered Gene Expression: Possible Involvement in Carcinogenesis.- VI. Extracellular Factors and Cd Responses.- VII. Role for Genetic Polymorphisms in Altered Cellular Responses to Cd.- VIII. Tissue-Specific Regulation of Expression of Metallothioneins and Other Factors.- IX. Strategies for Derivation of New Cell Systems to Define Mechanisms of Cellular Cd Resistance.- X. Variation in Human Response.- G. Summary.- References.