Vcsel Industry: Communication and Sensing

ISBN-13: 9781119782193 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 352 str.

Padullaparthi Babu Dayal

Recenzje

"VCSELs are an exciting direction for use of laser energy in areas as diverse as communications, sensing, manufacturing, entertainment and mapping - on Earth as well as in space. It is fair to say that at least half the global human population is directly impacted by VCSELs, with many holding them in the palm of their hands. In the near future, people are likely to wear them as VCSEL based smart glasses go mainstream. This book covers this very important topic in excellent scientific detail, with a focus on clear language, rich references and very importantly the linkage of the basic physics and material science to real world applications and challenges. The pedigrees of the authors are impressive - from the invention of the technology to commercialization and application development - and is evident in the mastery of their explanations, historical perspective and unique insights into future directions. A must read book and reference for seasoned practitioners in the optics and related application fields as well as those embarking on new journeys!"--Sabbir Rangwala, President at Patience Consulting LLC, Former President of Princeton Lightwave (Automotive LiDAR), Senior Contributor to Forbes.com"VCSELs evolved to the dominant semiconductor laser format during the past ten years. Not only in terms of volume shipped, but also in terms of generated revenues they're by far the leading semiconductor laser product, today. From my perspective this trend will continue since VCSELs have distinct electro-optical characteristics that can be widely tuned to meet the requirements of new, innovative applications in the sensing and communication markets. Almost every day reports appear on new smartphone functionality, augmented reality, internet of things or autonomous vehicles. All these applications need clever optical sensors and VCSELs provide the ideal photons for them. In that way, VCSELs enable a huge multi-billion Euro market by generating the perfect illumination for such mass applications.Therefore, I am convinced that VCSEL technology drives the future not only of consumer electronics, industrial sensing or optical data communication, but also for autonomous driving and quantum technology. These devices will be in every home, every mobile device, every car and within every major industrial production system.For new VCSEL adopters as well as professionals the new Wiley book VCSEL Industry: Communication & Sensing by Babu Dayal Padullaparthi, Jim Tatum and Kenichi Iga can be highly recommended. It provides new insights in latest developments illustrated with many figures showing the advanced status of VCSEL technology."--Dr. Berthold Schmidt, Managing Director, TRUMPF Photonic Components GmbH"This is a comprehensive and current guide for the VCSEL industry. Interested novices and experienced insiders alike will profit from the readable overview that also includes informative historical and current market information. Key applications where VCSELs are deployed today are outlined. The individual chapters include detailed data and informative graphics and are complemented by useful background. The book closes with an insightful outlook into potential applications. Specific aspects of VCSEL design and manufacturing are explained in an extensive appendix, which provides additional practical help to the interested reader."--Dr. Karlheinz Gulden, CFA, Senior Vice President Laser Devices and Systems, II-VI Incorporated"This new textbook provides a clear, thorough, and up-to-date review of the VCSEL industry - a vexing challenge given the speed and diversity of VCSEL adoption into new applications, such as LIDAR, AR/VR, etc. The reader will find a rich balance of market and technical information that consolidates salient know-how from textbooks, journals, and conferences. The text utilizes standard symbol conventions and figures that are clear and intuitive. I especially appreciated the comprehensive table summaries and flow charts that contrasts the strengths/weaknesses of competing approaches."--Jay Skidmore, VP R&D, 3D Sensing, Lumentum

Spis treści

About the Book and Authors Biographies xvForeword xviiPreface xixIntroduction xxiAcknowledgments xxiiiList of Image Contributions xxv1 Semiconductor Lasers and VCSEL History 1Kenichi Iga1.1 History and Basics of Semiconductor Lasers 11.1.1 Categorization of Semiconductor Lasers 11.1.2 Light Emission and Absorption in Semiconductors 31.1.3 Birth of Semiconductor Lasers 31.1.3.1 Homostructure and Double Heterostructure Lasers 31.1.3.2 Quantum Well Lasers 41.1.4 Amplification of Light in Semiconductors 51.1.5 Oscillation Conditions in Semiconductor Lasers 61.1.5.1 Laser Resonators 61.1.5.2 Resonant Wavelength 71.1.5.3 Cavity Formation 81.2 Semiconductor Lasers and Manufacturing 91.2.1 Manufacturing Process of Edge-Emitting Lasers 91.2.2 Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser 91.3 VCSEL History and Development 111.3.1 Stage I: Initial Concept and Invention 111.3.1.1 Stage Ia: Invention and Initial Demonstration 111.3.1.2 Stage Ib: First Room-Temperature Continuous-Wave Operation 121.3.2 Stage-II: Spread of Worldwide R&D 131.3.3 Stage III: Extension of Applications and Initial Commercialization 131.3.3.1 LAN for Internet 141.3.3.2 Computer Mouse 141.3.3.3 Laser Printers 141.3.4 Stage IV: Spread of VCSEL Photonics 151.3.5 Stage V: VCSEL Industry 151.4 Timeline and Milestones 151.4.1 Milestones of VCSEL Research and Development 151.4.2 Single-Mode and Multi-Mode Behavior 151.4.3 Major Features of VCSELs 171.4.4 VCSELs as Major Optical Components 171.4.5 VCSELs in Optical Communication and Sensing 171.4.5.1 The Concept of VCSEL Communication and Sensing 171.4.5.2 VCSELs in Optical Communications 171.4.5.3 VCSELs in Optical Sensing 191.5 State of VCSEL Development 211.5.1 Published Papers 211.5.2 Toward VCSEL Photonics 211.5.3 Toward VCSEL High-Volume Manufacturing 221.5.4 Prospects of VCSEL Market 23References 242 VCSEL Fundamentals 29Jim Tatum2.1 Introduction to Lasers 292.2 Basic VCSEL Structure 292.3 Quantum Well Gain Region (Active Region) 302.4 Distributed Bragg Reflector Mirrors 302.5 Light Output Characteristic 332.6 Forward Voltage Characteristic 332.7 Optical Modes 342.8 Beam Divergence 362.9 Modulation Characteristics 372.10 Temperature Characteristics 392.11 Thermal Transient Behavior and Short-Pulse Operation 402.12 Other VCSEL Structures 412.13 VCSEL Materials 442.14 Summary 44References 453 VCSEL Industry: Prospects and Products 47Babu Dayal Padullaparthi3.1 Industry Background 473.1.1 VCSEL Market 483.1.2 VCSEL Chip Demands 483.1.3 VCSEL Attractiveness 513.1.4 VCSEL Die Cost and Foundry Economics 523.2 VCSEL Industry Landscape 553.2.1 The Key "Abilities" of VCSELs 553.2.2 High-Volume Manufacturing Challenges 553.2.2.1 Epi-Wafer Growth and F-P and PL Uniformities 563.2.2.2 Wafer-Fab (Processing) Specifications 573.2.2.3 Dry Etch Depth Uniformity 573.2.2.4 Wet Thermal Oxidation, Aperture Control and Uniformity 603.2.2.5 Chip Qualification and Reliability Tests 603.2.3 Industry Players 623.2.3.1 Epi-Houses 623.2.3.2 Process Foundries 623.2.4 Business Models 623.2.5 Supply Chain 643.2.6 Yield Improvements 653.2.7 Cycle Times 673.2.8 COVID-19 Effects 673.3 VCSEL Commercial Products 683.4 Summary 68References 69Bibliography 714 Data Communications Applications 73Jim Tatum4.1 Introduction 734.2 Growing Data 744.3 Data Centers and High-Performance Computing 754.3.1 Data Centers 764.3.2 High-Performance Computing 764.3.3 Structure of Data Centers and HPC Centers 774.4 Optical Interconnects 784.4.1 Introduction 784.4.2 Networking Communications Standards 794.4.3 Optical Transceiver Types 794.4.4 Consumer Connectivity 814.4.5 Techno-Economic Comparison of Transceiver Technology 824.5 Data Encoding and Multiplexing 844.5.1 Introduction 844.5.2 Spatial and Wavelength Multiplexing 844.5.3 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM-n) 854.5.4 Discrete Multi-Tone Modulation (DMT) 864.5.5 Other Modulation Formats 864.5.6 Analog and Radio Access Modulation 864.5.7 Modulation Format Conclusion 864.6 High-Speed VCSELs 874.6.1 Current Industry Capability 874.6.2 VCSEL Bandwidth Improvement 884.6.3 Photonic Resonance VCSELs 904.6.4 Laser Driver Compensation 924.6.5 Forward Error Correction 944.6.6 Some Record Results 944.7 Optical Link Impairments 954.7.1 Transmitter Impairments 954.7.2 Fiber Impairments 974.7.3 Receiver Impairments 1004.8 Energy Efficient VCSELs 1014.9 Datacom Market 1024.10 Summary 102References 1025 VCSELs for 3D Sensing and Computer Vision 105Babu Dayal Padullaparthi5.1 Optical Sensors in Consumer Electronics 1055.1.1 3D Imaging Technologies 1055.1.1.1 Stereo Vision 1065.1.1.2 Time-of-Flight (TOF) 1065.1.1.3 Triangulation Technique and Structured Light 1095.1.2 Apple's 3D Sensing Technology Breakthrough and its Impact 1105.2 Why VCSELs for Smart Optical Sensors? 1125.2.1 Key Features of High-Power VCSEL Arrays 1125.2.2 Figures of Merit of 2D VCSEL Arrays 1135.2.2.1 Optimizing Losses: Slope Efficiency and Wall Plug Efficiency 1135.2.2.2 Fill Factor and Power Scaling 1145.2.3 Key Challenges 1145.2.3.1 Thermal Dissipation (Heat Sinking) and Packaging 1145.2.3.2 Spectral Width, Wavelength Uniformity, and Beam Quality 1155.2.3.3 Field-of-View (FOV) and Micro-Optic Illuminators 1155.2.3.4 Thermal Limits and Pulse Switching Times 1165.3 3D Sensing (Mobile) Products 1185.3.1 Smartphones: iOS vs Android 1185.3.2 TOF-Based Proximity Sensors 1195.3.3 TOF-Based Illumination Sensors 1195.3.4 Structured-Light-Based Face Recognition Sensors 1205.3.5 Other Short-Range 3D Sensors 1215.4 Computer Vision and Virtual Reality 1215.4.1 Key Aspects of XR (AR, MR, VR) 1235.4.2 Augmented Reality (AR) 1245.5 3D Sensing Mobile and Camera Industry Prospects (until 2025) 1255.6 Summary 126References 1266 Automotive LiDARs 129Babu Dayal Padullaparthi6.1 Introduction to LiDARs 1296.1.1 Classification of LiDARs 1296.1.2 Technologies and Sensor Fusion 1306.1.3 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) 1326.2 Operating Principle of LiDARs 1346.2.1 Time-Delay and Phase-Shift-Based Pulsed Light Detection 1346.2.2 Frequency-Based Continuous Light Detection 1356.2.3 Light Transmitters in LiDARs 1356.2.4 Light Detectors in LiDARs 1366.2.5 Lidar Module with Integrated System-on-Chip (SOC) 1366.3 VCSELs in LiDAR Industry: Landscape and Direction 1376.3.1 Autonomous Shuttles: MaaS/ASaaS 1396.3.2 LiDARs in Drones, Robotics, etc. 1406.4 Key Aspects of LiDARs 1406.4.1 Measurement Techniques 1416.4.2 Wavelength 1426.4.3 Eye Safety 1436.4.4 Laser Radiance and Perception 1436.4.5 Challenges 1446.4.5.1 Background Light Rejection 1456.4.5.2 Single Photon Counting Using SPAD Arrays 1456.4.5.3 Range Aliasing 1456.4.5.4 Power Consumption and System Integration 1466.5 Examples of VCSEL-and EEL-Based LiDARs 1466.5.1 Solid-State Flash LiDAR 1476.5.2 Solid-State Addressable-Flash LiDARs 1486.5.3 MEMS Scanning LiDAR 1486.5.4 Mechanical Scanning LiDAR 1506.5.5 FMCW LiDARs 1506.5.6 Optical Phased Array (OPA) and Si-Photonics-Based LiDARs 1516.5.7 VCSELs for in-Cabin Sensing 1516.6 Automotive Communication: IVE (Infotainment) and C-V2X 1526.7 Market Summary 153References 1547 Illumination, Night Vision, and Industrial Heating 159Jim Tatum7.1 Introduction 1597.2 Optical Properties of Illumination Sources 1597.3 Commercial Examples of VCSEL Illuminators 1617.4 VCSEL-Based Industrial Heating 1647.5 Summary 167References 1688 Single-Mode VCSELs for Sensing Applications 169Kenichi Iga and Jim Tatum8.1 Introduction 1698.2 Single-Mode VCSELs 1698.2.1 Spatial Mode Control 1708.2.2 Polarization Control 1728.2.3 Wavelength Tuning Principles 1748.3 Single-Mode VCSEL Application Examples 1768.3.1 Laser Mouse and Finger Navigation 1768.3.2 Optical Encoders 1788.3.3 Laser Printers 1788.3.4 Gas Sensors 1798.3.5 Atomic Clocks and Magnetometers 1818.3.6 Optical Coherence Tomography 1828.3.7 Other Emerging Applications 1848.4 Summary 185References 1859 Single-Mode VCSELs for Communications Applications 189Kenichi Iga and Jim Tatum9.1 Introduction 1899.2 LW-VCSEL Design and Manufacturing 1909.2.1 LW-VCSEL Structures 1909.2.2 1310 nm VCSEL 1919.2.3 VCSELs in the 1550 nm Band 1919.2.4 Other Wavelengths for Data Communications 1929.3 Quantum Communications 1939.4 Summary 195References 19510 Future Prospects 199Babu Dayal Padullaparthi, Kenichi Iga, and Jim Tatum10.1 VCSEL Industry 19910.2 Datacom VCSELs 20010.3 VCSEL Arrays for 3D Sensing (Short Distance) 20010.4 VCSEL Arrays for 3D Sensing and Imaging (Long Distance) 20110.5 kW-Level VCSEL Arrays for Industrial and Night Vision 20110.6 Single-Mode VCSELs for Communication and Sensing 20210.7 Quantum Technologies 20210.8 Neuromorphic/Neurophotonic Technologies 20210.9 Biomedical/Bio-Photonic Applications 20310.10 New Directions of VCSEL Technologies (as of March 2021) 20310.11 Concluding Remarks 204References 205Appendix A VCSELs Design Engineering 207Babu Dayal PadullaparthiAppendix B Epitaxial Growth Engineering 221Babu Dayal PadullaparthiAppendix C Wafer Process Engineering 235Babu Dayal PadullaparthiAppendix D Wafer Level Testing 245Jim TatumAppendix E Reliability and Product Qualification 255Jim TatumAppendix F Eye Safety Considerations 273Jim TatumAppendix G Laser Displays and TV 277Kenichi IgaAppendix H Red VCSELs 287Jim TatumAppendix I GaN-Based VCSELs 291Kenichi IgaAppendix J Photodetectors 297Babu Dayal PadullaparthiImage Gallery 311Index 313

O autorze

Babu Dayal Padullaparthi, Ph.D., is Vice President and Chief Technology Officer of Photonic Components DFM Ltd. in Hong Kong. He has over 22 years of experience in research, development, and manufacturing in academic and industrial facilities producing III-V photonic devices for communication and sensing, and he is credited with 24 patents and 50 technical papers.Jim Tatum, Ph.D., is the Chief Executive Officer of Dallas Quantum Devices. He was part of the team that made the world's first commercial VCSEL. Since then, he has led the engineering development of commercial VCSELs for high speed data communications, 3D sensing, atomic clocks, and many other applications. He has been issued over 50 patents and has written over 60 technical papers.Kenichi Iga, Dr. Eng., is a Professor Emeritus of Tokyo Institute of Technology and served as its President. He first proposed a surface emitting laser and pioneered the research. A Life Fellow of IEEE, he received Edison Medal in 2021 for VCSEL initiation.