The Paramyxoviruses

ISBN-13: 9781461366898 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 596 str.

David W. Kingsbury; David W. Kingsbury

Opis

What justifies the size of this compendium of reviews on the paramyxoviruses? As intracellular parasites that reproduce with almost complete indifference to nuclear activities, paramyxoviruses have not been providing insights about genes that regulate cellular activities and development, topics that account for much of the excitement in modem biology. For contributions of virus research to those topics, we must look to the retroviruses, which have the propensity to steal developmentally important genes and subvert them to malignant pur- poses, and to the nuclear DNA viruses, whose gene expression depends heavily upon cellular transcription machinery, making them exceptionally useful tools for identifying and characterizing components of that machinery. From this perspective, it may appear that purely lytic viruses like the paramyxoviruses are sitting on the sidelines of contemporary biology. But there is plenty of action on the sidelines. Paramyxoviruses remain unconquered, devastating agents of disease. Human deaths attributable to paramyxoviruses worldwide, especially in children, are numbered in the mil- lions annually. There are many pathogenic paramyxoviruses and too few effec- tive vaccines, and those vaccines (against measles and mumps) are affordable only by relatively affluent nations. Moreover, the paramyxoviruses are intrin- sically interesting organisms, presenting the challenge of understanding the self-replication of RNA and many other challenges peculiar to the structures and functions of their proteins, not only as individual entities, but also as they act in concert during virus reproduction and interact with vital functions of the cells they infect and often (but not always) destroy.

Spis treści

1 The Genetics of Paramyxoviruses.- I. Introduction: The Genome Strategy of the Paramyxoviruses.- II. Genome Organization.- A. Genome Structure and function.- B. Coding Potential.- III. Genetic Interactions.- A. Absence of Genetic Recombination.- B. Complementation Analysis with Conditional Lethal Mutants.- C. Other Mutants.- IV. Analysis of Gene function.- A. Transport and Glycosylation of the G Glycoprotein of Respiratory Syncytial Virus.- B. Membrane Interactions of the F1 Polypeptide of SV5.- C. Gene-Specific Hypermutation in Measles Virus.- V Prospects.- VI. References.- 2 The Molecular Biology of the Paramyxovirus Genus.- I. Introduction.- A. History.- B. General Properties.- II. Virus Structure.- A. Morphology.- B. Virion Envelope and Envelope-Associated Proteins.- C. Internal Virion and Nonstructural Proteins.- III. Viral Replication.- A. Adsorption, Penetration, and Uncoating.- B. Molecular Organization of the Genome.- C. Transcription.- D. Genome Replication.- IV References.- 3 The Molecular Biology of the Morbilliviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Genome Structure and Replication Strategy.- III. Genetic Relationships among the Morbilliviruses.- A. Nucleocapsid Protein Gene.- B. The Phosphoprotein Gene.- C. Matrix Protein Gene.- D. Fusion Protein Gene.- E. The Hemagglutinin Protein Gene.- F. The L Protein Gene.- IV. Function of the 5? and 3? Untranslated Regions.- V. Diagnosis Using Molecular Techniques.- VI. Morbillivirus Vaccines.- VII. Conclusions.- VIII. References.- 4 The Molecular Biology of Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) of the Genus Pneumovirus.- I. Introduction.- II. Structures of the RSV Virion, RNAs, and Proteins.- A. Virion Structure.- B. Overview: Identification of Genomic RNA (vRNA), mRNAs, and Proteins.- C. Genetic Map of Strain A2.- D. Structures of the mRNAs.- E. Sequence Diversity among RSV Strains: Antigenic Subgroups.- F. Structures of the RSV Proteins.- III. RSV Replication.- A. Attachment, Penetration, and Growth Cycle.- B. vRNA Transcription.- C. vRNA Replication.- D. Virion Morphogenesis.- IV. Evolutionary Relationships.- A. RSV Antigenic Subgroups.- B. Relationships with Other Paramyxoviruses.- V. Conclusions.- VI. References.- 5 Evolutionary Relationships of Paramyxovirus Nucleocapsid-Associated Proteins.- I. Introduction.- A. Paramyxovirus Nucleocapsid Structure.- B. Functions of Nucleocapsid-Associated Proteins.- II. Sequence Analyses of Nucleocapsid Proteins.- A. NP Proteins.- B. L Proteins.- C. P Proteins.- III. Conclusions.- IV. References.- 6 The Nonstructural Proteins of Paramyxoviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Paramyxovirus C Proteins.- A. Identification in Infected Cells.- B. The P and C Proteins are Encoded in Overlapping Reading Frames.- C. Multiple Initiation Codons on One mRNA.- D. Initiation Codon Consensus Sequences and the Scanning Hypothesis.- E. Subcellular Localization and Possible Function of Sendai Virus C Proteins.- F. When is a Nonstructural Protein a Structural Protein?.- G. Identification of C Proteins of Parinfluenza Virus 3, Measles Virus, and CDV.- III. Paramyxovirus Cysteine-Rich Proteins.- A. Identification of the Polypeptide and Its Gene in SV5.- B. Assignment of Coding Regions.- C. Strategy by Which P and V are Encoded.- D. Mechanism for the Addition of Extra Nucleotides to mRNAs.- E. Conservation of the Cysteine-Rich Region of Protein V in Paramyxoviruses.- F. Prediction of Cysteine-Rich Polypeptides and mRNAs with Extra Nucleotides in All Paramyxoviruses.- G. Identification of the Nonstructural Protein V and Its mRNAs in Other Paramyxoviruses.- H. Function of the Paramyxovirus Cysteine-Rich Protein V?.- IV. Paramyxovirus Small Hydrophobic (SH) Proteins.- A. Identification of the Polypeptide and Its Gene in SV5.- B. The SH Gene of Mumps Virus.- V Sendai Virus Nonstructural Polypeptide B: Intracellularly Phosphorylated Matrix Protein.- VI. Prospects.- VII. References.- 7 Paramyxovirus RNA Synthesis and P Gene Expression.- I. Paramyxovirus RNA Synthesis in Relation to That of Other (?) RNA Viruses.- II. The Switch from Sendai Virus Transcription to Replication.- III. Transcriptional Choice within the Sendai Virus P/C Gene.- IV. Ribosomal Choice during Sendai Virus P Gene Expression.- V. The Unknown Functions of the Various C Proteins.- VI. References.- 8 Function of Paramyxovirus 3? and 5? End Sequences: In Theory and Practice.- I. The Kingsbury—Kolakofsky Model for Transcription and Replication.- A. Features of the Kingsbury Model.- B. Development of the Model in Vesicular Stomatitis Virus (VSV).- II. Testing of the Model in Paramyxoviruses Shows Differences from VSV.- A. Leader RNAs are Not an Essential Operational element.- B. Experimental Evidence and Sequence Comparison of Paramyxovirus 3? and 5? Ends Suggest a Possible Auxiliary Internal Promoter Site.- C. Host-Cell-Encoded Proteins May Mediate Encapsidation.- III. A Modified Model for Paramyxovirus Transcription and Replication.- A. Elements of the Modified Model.- B. Reassortment of Functional Elements in the Modified Model.- IV. Concluding Remarks.- V. References.- 9 The Role of Viral and Host Cell Proteins in Paramyxovirus Transcription and Replication.- I. Introduction.- A. General Scheme of Paramyxovirus RNA Synthesis.- B. Structure of the Genome RNAs of Sendai and Measles Viruses.- C. Viral Proteins Required for RNA Synthesis.- II. Sendai Virus RNA Synthesis.- A. Transcription and the Effect of Host Cell Proteins.- B. RNA Replication and the Effect of Host Cell Proteins.- C. Effect of Heterologous Viral Proteins.- III. Measles Virus RNA Synthesis.- A. Transcription and RNA Replication.- B. Role of Tubulin.- C. Role of Actin.- IV. Conclusions and Prospects.- V. References.- 10 Deletion Mutants of Paramyxoviruses.- I. Introduction and Historical Perspective.- II. Defective-Interfering Paramyxoviruses.- A. Sendai Virus.- B. Parainfluenza Virus 3.- C. Mumps Virus.- D. Simian Virus 5.- E. Newcastle Disease Virus.- F. Measles Virus.- G. Canine Distemper Virus.- H. Respiratory Syncytial Virus.- III. Genomes of Defective-Interfering (DI) Paramyxoviruses.- A. DI Genome Structure.- B. DI RNA Survival.- C. DI RNA Selection.- D. DI RNA Generation.- IV. Interference by Defective-Interfering Particles.- V. Persistent Infections.- VI. Medical Relevance of Defective-Interfering Viruses.- VII. Concluding Remarks.- VIII. References.- 11 Paramyxovirus Persistence: Consequences for Host and Virus.- I. Introduction: Definition of Persistence in Vivo.- II. Consequences for the Virus.- A. Possible Effects of Persistent Infections on the Epidemiology of Paramyxoviruses.- B. Evidence for Prolonged Production of Infectious Virus by Persistently Infected Individuals.- C. Possible Effect of Persistent Infections on Herd Immunity.- III. Consequences for the Host.- A. Importance of Immune Response in the Establishment and Maintenance of Persistent Infections.- B. Spread of Paramyxoviruses in an Infected Host and Their Interaction with Hemopoietic Cells.- IV. Persistent Paramyxovirus Infections and Their Possible Role in Chronic Human Diseases.- A. Paget’s Bone Disease.- B. Autoimmune Chronic Active Hepatitis.- C. Multiple Sclerosis.- V. Animal Models and the Consequences of Paramyxovirus Persistence.- VI. Conclusions.- VII. References.- 12 Molecular Biology of Defective Measles Viruses Persisting in the Human Central Nervous System.- I. Introduction.- A. General Features of Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE) and Measles Inclusion Body Encephalitis (MIBE).- B. Aspects of Disease Development.- C. Experimental Systems.- II. Alterations Documented in Persistent MV Genomes.- A. Basis of Sequence Comparisons.- B. Nucleotide Substitutions Due to Polymerase Errors.- C. Hypermutation of Genome Segments.- D. Nucleotide Deletions.- E. Nucleotide Insertions.- F. Formation of Defective-Interfering (DI) RNA.- III. Alterations of Gene Functions.- A. Matrix Protein.- B. Fusion Protein.- C. Hemagglutinin.- D. The Transcription—Replication Functions: N, P(C,V), and L Proteins.- IV. Conclusions and Outlook.- A. The Suggested Role of Viral Mutations in Disease Development.- B. Outlook.- V. References.- 13 Structure, Function, and Intracellular Processing of the Glycoproteins of Paramyxoviridae.- I. Introduction.- II. Paramyxovirus Attachment Proteins.- A. Structure, Function, and Evolution.- B. Intracellular Processing of the Attachment Protein.- III. Paramyxovirus Fusion Proteins.- A. Structure, Function, and Evolution.- B. Intracellular Processing of the Fusion Protein.- IV. Conclusions.- V. References.- 14 The Unusual Attachment Glycoprotein of the Respiratory Syncytial Viruses: Structure, Maturation, and Role in Immunity.- I. Introduction.- II. The Structure of G.- A. Primary Sequence.- B. Structural Features of the G Polypeptide.- C. Carbohydrate of G.- III. Maturation of G.- A. Intermediates in the Synthesis of G.- B. Role of Carbohydrate in Cell Surface Maturation.- C. Shed G.- IV. The Importance of G in the Antigenic Diversity of RS Virus.- A. Recognition of Subgroups.- B. Molecular Analysis of Subgroup Differences.- C. Immunological Differences.- V. Role of Carbohydrate in the Immune Response to the G Protein.- A. Immunoglobulin Subclass Responses.- B. Xid Mice.- VI. Characterization of G As a Protective Immunogen.- A. Recombinant Vaccinia Virus Vectors.- B. Immunoaffinity-Purified G.- C. Identification of Immunologically Important Epitopes of G.- D. Role of Humoral versus Cell-Mediated Immunity.- VII. Summary and Prospects.- VIII. References.- 15 New Frontiers Opened by the Exploration of Host Cell Receptors.- I. Introduction: Definition of a Biological Receptor.- II. Clues from Model Systems: Erythrocytes, Liposomes, and Immobilized Substrata.- III. Receptors on Host Cells.- A. A Commonly Occurring Receptor Suggested by Fusion of Somatic Cells and by Systemic Infection by a Variant.- B. Functional Receptor Assay in Host Cells.- IV. Glycolipids Come of Age as Receptors.- A. Specificity and the Concept of Isoreceptors.- B. Identification in Host Cells.- C. Identification in Target Tissue.- D. Parallels between the Fusogenic Gradient and Receptor function.- V. Expression Controls Infection.- VI. Current Status of Receptors for Paramyxoviruses Other Than Sendai Virus.- A. Human Parainfluenza Viruses, Respiratory Syncytial Virus, NDV, and Mumps Virus.- B. The Morbilliviruses.- VII. Questions Remaining.- A. A Second Receptor for the F Protein?.- B. Proteins As Receptors or Modulators?.- C. Therapeutic Potential of Receptor Analogs?.- VIII. References.- 16 Paramyxovirus M Proteins: Pulling It All Together and Taking It on the Road.- I. Introduction.- II. Interactions of the M Protein.- A. M Protein Association with Lipid Membranes.- B. M Protein Association with the Viral Glycoproteins.- C. M Protein Association with M Protein.- D. M Protein Association with the Nucleocapsid.- E. M Protein Association with the Cytoskeleton.- III. M Protein: Assembly Bandleader.- IV. Structure of the M Protein.- V. M Protein and the Nucleus.- VI. Conclusions and Outlook.- VII. References.- 17 Intracellular Targeting and Assembly of Paramyxovirus Proteins.- I. Introduction.- II. Synthesis and Transport of the Hemagglutinin-Neuraminidase Glycoprotein.- A. Site of Synthesis, Transport, and Kinetics.- B. Glycosylation and Other Modifications.- C. Oligomerization and Disulfide Bond Formation.- III. Synthesis and Transport of the Fusion Glycoprotein.- A. Site of Synthesis, Transport, and Kinetics.- B. Glycosylation, Oligomerization, and Disulfide Bond Formation.- IV. Matrix (M) Protein.- A. Structural Organization in the Virion.- B. Synthesis and Transport.- C. Domains of Interaction on the M Protein.- V. Nucleocapsid-Associated Proteins.- A. Structural Organization in the Virion.- B. Assembly of Nucleocapsid.- VI. Nonstructural Proteins.- VII. Involvement of Host Cell Components in Virus Assembly.- VIII. Alterations of Virus Assembly in Persistently or DI Particle-Infected Cells.- IX. Virus Assembly in Polarized Epithelial Cells.- X. Concluding Remarks.- XI. References.- 18 Immunobiology of Paramyxoviruses.- I. Introduction.- II. Structural—Functional Characterization of Virus Components by Immunological Probing.- A. Rationale.- B. Nonmembrane Components.- C. Membrane Components.- III. Evolutionary Relationships between Homologous Components Reflected in Immunological Cross-Reactions.- IV. Stability of Antigen Characteristics and Intratypic Variations.- V. Immunoprotective Roles of Isolated Virus Components.- VI. Live Vaccines Based on Viruses with a Different Host Specificity: The Jennerian Approach.- VII. Prospects for Advances in Diagnostic Virological Procedures.- VIII. Concluding Remarks.- IX. References.- 19 Epidemiology of Paramyxoviridae.- I. Common Characteristics and Contrasts.- II. Morbillivirus.- A. Characteristics of the Genus As a Whole.- B. Measles Virus.- III. Paramyxovirus.- A. Mumps Virus.- B. Parainfluenza Viruses.- IV Pneumovirus: Respiratory Syncytial Virus.- V. References.