Climate change is projected to decrease the availability of renewable surface water and groundwater resources significantly, intensifying competition for water resources among users. With extreme weather events (floods and droughts), climate change is projected to reduce the availability of good quality water and pose threats to human health. Examples of specific impacts of climate change on water resources include lower surface water levels, groundwater depletion, higher water temperatures leading to additional or new treatment processes for drinking water, increasing pollutant concentrations threatening groundwater supplies, increased stormwater runoff resulting in increased loads of pathogens in waterways, and sea level rises increasing the salinity of coastal aquifers.

1. Smart water policies to achieve urban water security: This chapter will discuss the various demand management tools available to modify the attitudes and behaviour of water users to balance rising demand with limited, and often variable, supplies.

2. Developing alternative supplies: Reuse and recycling of water: This chapter will provide an overview of alternative water supply solutions that have been implemented in a variety of locations to enhance resilience to climate change and reduce reliance on more distant water sources.

3. Water governance and agriculture production: This chapter will explore the various water governance policies and strategies available to reduce inter-sectoral competition in a changing climate.

4. Green infrastructure and climate resilience: This chapter will provide a global overview of leading cities that have implemented green infrastructure to enhance resilience to climate change while benefiting from multiple co-benefits.

5. Transboundary river basin management and capacity-building in Africa: This chapter will explore how policies are being implemented to build capacities for knowledge-based water resources planning and management.

6. Groundwater management in a changing climate: This chapter explores effective governance models and best practices in aquifer management that ensure groundwater is managed with other water resources, and other needs, including food, energy, industrial development to improve water security.

7. Water’s cross-cutting nature in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals: This chapter will first discuss water’s centrality in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals before assessing the various policy innovations that can be implemented to encourage cross-sector partnerships to achieve water security.

8. Moving from Intermittent water supply to continuous supply sustainably: This chapter will assess the cause of intermittent supply and provide case studies of cities that have moved from intermittent water supply to continuous supply in a sustainable manner.

Energy

Changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level, and frequency and severity of extreme events will affect how much energy is produced, delivered, and consumed. For instance, increases in extreme weather events such as storms, forest fires, floods, and extreme temperatures will affect energy production and delivery facilities, causing supply disruptions and affecting infrastructure dependent on the energy supply while changes in water quantity and distribution will impede hydropower production and reduce the cooling efficiency thermal-electric power plants.

1. Policies to scale-up renewable energy systems: This chapter surveys those barriers before discussing policy innovations that aim to overcome key barriers and create a resilient energy supply.

2. Smart Grids and smart metering: This chapter discusses the application of smart grids and smart meters, along with energy storage, to provide flexibility in the system while enhancing resilience and mitigating carbon emissions

3. Demand-side management: This chapter will discuss how demand-side management can be applied to increase the resilience of the energy sector or minimise impacts on consumers during climatic extremes.

4. Energy efficiency and renewable energy in buildings: This chapter will discuss the development of policies that encourage district heating and other renewable energy systems in the pursuit of zero-carbon buildings.

5. Waste-to-energy and the low-carbon economy: This chapter will discuss the various technological innovations and policy mechanisms used to encourage waste-to-energy systems.

6. Protecting energy infrastructure extreme weather events: This chapter will discuss the various ‘hardware’ and ‘software’ being used to protect energy infrastructure from climatic extremes.

7. Ensuring efficient hydropower production: This chapter will discuss improving river basin management to regulate the hydrologic cycle and reduce sediment loads, thereby maintaining hydropower production levels.

8. Energy financing to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 7: This chapter will explore the various financing options used to promote the uptake of renewable energy systems and energy efficiency in the pursuit of a low-carbon economy that meets SDG 7.

Agriculture and Food

Climate change and climate variability are projected to have a significant effect on agricultural production in terms of crop yields and the location where different crops can be grown. Many weeds, pests, and fungi thrive under warmer temperatures, wetter climates, and increase carbon dioxide levels, resulting in competition with crops for light, water, and nutrients. Climate change will have a detrimental impact on livestock with an increase in the prevalence of parasites and diseases that affect livestock. For instance, the earlier onset of spring and warmer winters could allow some parasites and pathogens to survive more easily while in areas with increased rainfall, moisture-reliant pathogens could thrive. The result is the impacts of climate change is likely to decrease the quantity and jeopardise the quality of our food supplies.

1. BMP management practices for sustainable agricultural production: This chapter will discuss best management practices in the development of sustainable agricultural production that is resilient to climatic risks.

2. Adjustment in international trade to enhance food security: This chapter will analyse various initiatives countries have taken to buffer themselves from climatic risks to agricultural production.

3. Smart agriculture and Big Data: This chapter will discuss the use of Big Data in enhancing agricultural production and efficiency.

4. Urban agriculture production: This chapter will discuss advancements in urban agricultural production that enhances resilience to climate change while providing jobs and training to local communities.

5. Protecting food security through climate change mitigation: This chapter will discuss innovations that help mitigate emissions in agricultural production

6. Nature-based solutions to food and agriculture: This chapter will discuss the use of nature-based solutions to enhance food production including the protection of water for food security

7. Achieving SDG 2 of Zero Hunger: This chapter will discuss various innovative policies being implemented to achieve SDG 2.

8. Reducing food wastage and using waste wisely: This chapter will discuss how leading locations around the world are implementing innovative policies to lower food waste, and use remaining food waste wisely, including in renewable energy systems.

Built Environment and Infrastructure

Buildings and infrastructure are vulnerable to climate change as they are often designed with low resistance to storms or are in flood-prone areas. They can also be damaged or rendered unfit for use by extreme events. For instance, changes in precipitation patterns can lead to damage to the built environment and infrastructure from increased inland flooding, erosion, landslides, and rockfalls and increased fire risk associated with more frequent droughts. At the same time, the built environment and infrastructure can contribute to the urban heat island effect and increase the likelihood of urban flooding.

1. Nature-based solutions to enhancing resilience of critical infrastructure: This chapter will discuss the use of nature-based solutions to protect critical infrastructure while restoring environmental health.

2. Public-private sector cooperation in enhancing resilience: This chapter will explore the use of public-private partnerships and other forms of cooperation to enhance resilience in the built environment.

3. Integrating climate change considerations into asset management: This chapter will discuss how proactive risk management and asset improvements, or renewal can improve overall resilience of asset systems to climate change.

4. Policies to discourage development in vulnerable areas: This chapter will discuss various planning policies that encourage climate-resilient land-planning.

5. Enhancing resilience of informal settlements: This chapter will discuss initiatives that enhance resilience in informal settlements to climate change while reducing poverty levels.

6. Climate-smart buildings: This chapter will discuss initiatives being undertaken in encouraging climate-smart buildings that mitigate and adapt to climate change.

7. Protecting vital infrastructure from extreme weather events: This chapter will discuss how vital infrastructure including drinking and wastewater services are being physically protected from climate change all the while ensuring redundancy in the system.

8. Waterfront revivals: This chapter will discuss how waterfront developments are mitigating the risks of climatic extremes while enhancing resilience of the community to climate change.

Transport

Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events which could increase the risk of delays, disruptions, damage, and failure across the land-based, air, and marine transportation systems. For example, high temperatures can damage roadways while heavy rains may result in floods damaging roads, tunnels, and bridges, air transportation is at risk with heatwaves and flooding damaging infrastructure and airstrips. Marine transportation is threatened as flooding could close shipping channels while in areas experiencing drought, water levels could periodically decrease, limiting inland shipping on rivers.

1. Green infrastructure turning roads into rivers: This chapter will discuss various green infrastructure options for utilising roading networks to manage excess rainfall.

2. Nature-based solutions to protecting transportation links: This chapter will discuss how nature-based solutions are being deployed to protect transportation links from climatic extremes.

3. Planning resilient roads for the future: This chapter will discuss the impacts of climate change on primary road infrastructure before discussing the need to incorporate forward-looking planning to reduce vulnerability and enhance resilience.

4. Keeping airports open in times of climatic extremes: This chapter will discuss how airports are increasing their physical resilience to climate change.

5. Enhancing resilience of inland waterway transportation: This chapter will discuss the various adaptation strategies being implemented to reduce disruption to shipping in inland waterways.

6. Carbon-neutral public transportation: This chapter will discuss how leading locations are building or upgrading public transportation networks to mitigate emissions.

7. Renewable energy powering transportation: This chapter will discuss various initiatives that encourage renewable energy in the transportation sector.

8. The maritime sector mitigating emissions and adapting to climate change: This chapter discusses how the maritime industry, which is a significant contributor to greenhouse gas emissions, is adapting to climatic risks, with a focus on developing climate-resilient ports.

Human Health

Climate change is likely to lead to an increase in the frequency and magnitude of extreme weather events, which can have either a direct or potential impact on health. For instance, climate change will bring about more intense and frequent heatwaves which are especially hazardous to the health of the young and elderly while floods will expose populations to pathogens. In addition to the physical impacts of climatic extremes, including infections, injuries or even death, extreme weather events can trigger psychological symptoms including stress, anxiety, trauma, and depression.

1. Ensuring adequate shelter for health: This chapter discusses how we need adequate housing for our health, but houses may become inhabitable due to extreme weather events.

2. Mental health and well-being: This chapter discusses how climate change can lead to significant mental health challenges and measures communities are taking to respond appropriately to climate change.

3. The challenges of new diseases: This chapter discusses how climate change heightens the risks of diseases in populations that currently do not experience particularly diseases and ways the health sector is dealing with emerging pathogens.

4. Climate-sensitive health impacts: This chapter discusses how certain groups have higher susceptibility to climate-sensitive health impacts due to a variety of variables including age, gender, social marginalisation etc.

5. Malnutrition and undernutrition: This chapter will discuss the impacts of climate change on food security and steps being taken by a variety of actors to prevent malnutrition and undernutrition in developing countries.

6. Temperature-related impacts of climate change: This chapter discusses how warmer average temperatures will lead to an increase in heat-related deaths and ways multiple-stakeholders are reducing risks to vulnerable communities.

7. Clean air and human health: This chapter will discuss how climate change will worsen air quality, leading to respiratory problems followed by policy interventions that enhance air quality.

8. Dietary challenges of climate change: This chapter will discuss the impacts of climate change on food production from disease, contamination of water, vector- and water-borne diseases and steps authorities are taking to enhance food security.

Society

Climate change will not impact everyone in society equally. Instead, groups of people will face greater challenges than others. Climate change will particularly impact coastal communities as well as those located in drought-prone areas. Similarly, some types of professions and industries will face greater challenges, with professions closely linked to weather and climate likely to be more affected. Climate change is expected to worsen existing vulnerabilities with people living in poverty expected to have a difficult time in coping with changes. Both the young and old are vulnerable to climate change with young children’s immune systems and other bodily systems are still developing while older people are particularly vulnerable to heat stress. Indigenous communities are at greater risk from climate change as they often live in rural areas or places most affected by climate change and rely on the surrounding environment and natural resources for food and income.

1. Stakeholder engagement to build community resilience: This chapter will discuss the importance of stakeholder engagement in building climate resilient communities that are inclusive of all social groups.

2. Building social capital in low-income communities to enhance resilience: This chapter will discuss how social capital is required for communities to be resilient to changes brought upon by climatic extremes and ways communities are creating or building on networks to reduce vulnerabilities.

3. Enhancing social equity in adapting to climate change: This chapter will discuss how climate change impacts certain segments of society more than others with women, the young and old, and those with disabilities more prone to climate change risks and steps taken to ensure every segment has its needs met.

4. Key components of what a resilient society is: This chapter explores the concept of what a resilient society really means and the variables that can be used to measure the level of resilience.

5. Indigenous communities and climate resilience: This chapter how a selection of Indigenous communities is incorporating traditional knowledge with climate science to ensure resilience into the future.

6. Community health and welfare in a changing climate: This chapter will discuss community health activities designed to improve physical health and well-being in disadvantaged communities.

7. Educating the young on climate-resilience: This chapter will assess educational curriculum and materials designed to enhance awareness and understanding of climate change in general and climate change risks in local environments.

8. Mental health and well-being of children in extreme events: This chapter will discuss mental health challenges to communities during times of extreme weather events including droughts, and programmes aimed at helping children cope during these periods.

Disaster

Climate change can increase disaster risk by altering the frequency and intensity of hazard events, affecting vulnerability to hazards, and changing exposure patterns. Climate change will drive disaster risk for example, rising sea levels will increase hazards in low-lying coast areas, increase magnitude and frequency of precipitation events will intensity existing patterns of extensive risk, and changes in the geographic distribution of weather-related hazards may lead to new patterns of risk. In addition, risk associated with weather-related hazards is disproportionately concentrated in developing countries and within these countries in poorer sectors of the population.

1. Merging of climate change adaptation and disaster risk management (DRM): This chapter will explore the synergies in climate change adaptation and DRM and review literature on how a common framework can be developed to enhance resilience while mitigating the risks of disasters.

2. Promoting cross-sectoral DRM frameworks: This chapter will explore cross-sectoral collaboration between traditional DRM actors and the private sector in the context of climate change before discussing a conceptual framework to help facilitate their success in the future.

3. Disaster risk reduction (DRR) in vulnerable coastal communities: This chapter outlines the various risks vulnerable communities face from short-term events driven by climate change, followed by a review of factors that can build resilience while at the same time ensuring livelihoods are preserved.

4. DRR and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals: This chapter will discuss the interrelationship between DRR and sustainable development with examples of how societies are implementing DRR initiatives that simultaneously meet particular SDGs in a changing climate.

5. Managing transboundary disaster risks in a changing climate: With disasters not respecting political boundaries, this chapter discusses various transboundary initiatives, at a variety of levels of governance, to mitigate disaster risks in a changing climate

6. Gender-sensitive DRR: This chapter will discuss gender-specific capacities and vulnerabilities to prepare, confront, and recover from disasters and how mainstreaming gender aspects can improve resilience to climate change.

7. Nature-based solutions and DRR: This chapter discusses the integration of nature-based solutions in DRR strategies around the world, as a way to reduce the risks from disasters, adapt to climate change, and protect ecosystem services humans rely on for health and well-being.

8. DRR and Small Island Developing States: This chapter will discuss initiatives to reduce vulnerabilities to disasters amplified by climate change with a particular focus on Pacific Island developing states.

Robert C. Brears is the Editor-in-Chief of the Palgrave Handbook of Climate Resilient Societies and the Palgrave Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Futures; both Major Reference Works published with Springer Nature. He is the author of nine books, including the Palgrave Macmillan titles Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water Resources, The Green Economy and the WaterEnergy-Food Nexus, Natural Resource Management and the Circular Economy, Climate Resilient Water Resources Management, and Developing the Circular Water Economy. Robert is the series editor of the Palgrave Studies in Climate Resilient Societies. He is the Founder of Our Future Water, which has a Knowledge Partnership with the World Bank’s Connect4Climate Program to take on climate change and the UNEP/ World Bank/OECD-hosted Green Growth Knowledge Platform

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