The Geology of the Atlantic Ocean

ISBN-13: 9781461297680 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 1050 str.

Kenneth O. Emery; Elazar Uchupi

Spis treści

1. Exploration.- Ancient Man.- Early North African and European Voyages.- General.- Celts.- Phoenicians-Iberians.- Egyptians-Libyans.- Greeks-Massilians.- Romans.- Vikings-Norse.- Maps.- European Voyages after 1400 A.D..- General.- Africa.- North America.- South America.- 2. Physiography.- Historical Development.- Hypsometry.- Physiographic Diagrams.- Land Areas.- Coasts and Shores.- Seacliffs.- Estuaries and Lagoons.- Continental Shelves.- Definitions.- Dimensions.- Detailed Morphology.- General.- Glacial, Diapir, Fault, and Slump Topographies.- Subaerial Topography.- Submerged Shore Topography.- Youthful Marine Topography.- Sea-Level History.- General.- The Past 36,000 Years.- The Past 6000 Years.- The Past 100 Years.- Future Levels.- Continental Slopes.- Definitions and Dimensions.- General Topography.- Carbonate Platforms and Escarpments.- Salt and Mud Diapirs.- Tectonism.- Submarine Canyons.- Landslide Scars.- Large Deltas and Deep-Ocean Cones.- Continental Rises.- General.- Deep-Ocean Channels.- Mass Movements.- Origin.- Abyssal Plains.- Abyssal Aprons.- General.- Sediment Drifts.- Other Sedimentary Features.- Eroded Areas of Deep-Ocean Floor.- Spreading (Primary) Ridges and Fracture Zones.- Geophysical Background.- North Atlantic Ocean.- South Atlantic Ocean.- Some General Characteristics.- Bathymetric Interpretations.- Poles of Plate Rotation.- Packets and Wedges of Fracture Zones.- Longitudinal Profiles.- Transverse Profiles.- Abyssal Hills.- Rock Falls and Slumps.- Convergence Ridges.- Aseismic Ridges.- General.- Mantle Plumes.- Extinct Spreading Belts.- Extinct Subduction Belt.- Horsts of Oceanic Crustal Rocks.- Microcontinents.- Continental Extensions.- Sedimentary Ridges.- Active Volcanoes.- Seamounts and Guyots.- Troughs.- General.- Glacial Troughs.- Carbonate Troughs.- Fracture Zone Troughs.- Divergence Troughs.- Plate Translation Troughs.- Convergence Troughs.- Sediment Troughs.- Troughs in Continental Crust.- Trenches.- 3. Internal Igneous Structure.- Historical Development.- Core.- General.- Geomagnetism.- Geoid.- Mantle.- General.- Seismicity.- Heat Flow.- Geoid and Gravity.- Composition.- Top of Mantle.- Oceanic Crust (Layer 3).- Seismic Properties.- Thickness and Depth to Top.- Composition.- Basaltic Layer (Layer 2).- Seismic Properties.- Thickness and Depth to Top.- Composition and Origin.- Magnetic Reversals.- Importance to Plate Tectonics.- Recognition and Origin.- Dating of Reversals.- Mapping of Lineations.- Slope Anomaly.- Smooth (Quiet) Zones (Belts).- Spreading Belts.- Triple Junctions.- Age of Layer 2.- Magnetic Pole Positions.- Modern and Historical Times.- Geological Times.- Paleogeography.- Plate Movements and Opening of Atlantic Ocean.- Paleobiogeography.- Paleosealevels and Plate Movements.- Previous and Future Atlantic Oceans.- Continental Crust.- General Structure.- Magnetic Patterns.- Seismicity.- General.- Divergence Boundaries.- Translation Boundaries.- Convergence Boundaries.- Plate Interiors.- Gravity.- General.- Plate Convergence.- Plate Divergence.- Plate Translation.- Less Completely Compensated at Depth.- Topography of Ocean Surface.- 4. The Syn-Rift Supersequence and Crustal Boundary.- Pangaea and Its Construction.- Background.- Information from North Atlantic Fragments.- Information from the South Atlantic.- Pangaea as a Whole.- Breakup of Pangaea.- Early Stages.- Southern North Atlantic.- Southernmost North Atlantic.- South Atlantic.- Northern North Atlantic.- Continental/Oceanic Crustal Boundary.- Continental Separation.- Divergent Margins.- General Forms.- Listric Faulting.- Listric Faulting/Intrusion.- Normal Faulting and Outer Highs.- Basement Hinge.- Listric Faulting Model (With or Without Outer Highs).- Normal Faulting and Outer-High Model.- Basement Hinge Model.- Translation Margins.- Distribution and Cause.- North Atlantic.- Bahamas, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Northern South America, Gulf of Guinea.- South Atlantic.- Divergent-Convergent Margin of Northern Spain.- Convergent (Oceanic Subduction) Margins.- 5. Drift Supersequence.- Background.- Southern North Atlantic.- Tectonic Setting.- Lower Jurassic.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- West African Margin.- Middle Jurassic.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Upper Jurassic to Lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian).- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Carolina Trough—Blake Plateau.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Upper Tithonian/Valanginian to Barremian.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Carolina Trough—Blake Plateau.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Aptian to Maestrichtian.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Baltimore Canyon Trough.- Carolina Trough—Blake Plateau—Bahamas.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Cenozoic.- Scotian Margin.- Georges Bank.- Long Island Platform—Baltimore Canyon.- Trough—Carolina Trough.- Blake Plateau—Bahamas.- Deep Ocean: West Side.- West African Margin.- Deep Ocean: East Side.- Gulf of Mexico.- Upper Jurassic (Oxfordian) to Lowermost Cretaceous (Berriasian).- Lower Cretaceous (Valanginian to Mid-Cenomanian).- Upper Cretaceous (Mid-Cenomanian) to Mid-Paleocene (Danian).- Upper Paleocene (Thanetian) to Lower Eocene (Ypresian) and Lower Eocene (Ypresian) to Upper Oligocene (Chattian).- Upper Oligocene (Chattian) to Upper Miocene(Messinian).- Upper Miocene (Messinian) to Pliocene.- Quaternary.- Caribbean Sea.- Yucatan Basin.- Chords Block.- Colombia Basin—Beata Ridge—Venezuela Basin.- Northern and Southern Margins of Venezuela Basin.- Aves Ridge—Grenada Trough—Antilles Ridge—Barbados Ridge.- Southern Ocean.- South Atlantic.- Falkland Plateau Region.- Agulhas Plateau.- Argentina Basin.- Cape Basin.- Torres Ridge —Walvis Ridge.- Brazil Basin.- Mid-Atlantic Ridge.- Angola Basin.- Equatorial Atlantic.- General.- Northern Brazilian Margin.- Gulf of Guinea.- Northern North Atlantic.- General Iberian Geology.- Western Iberian Margin.- Northern Iberian Margin (Southern Margin Bay of Biscay).- Northeastern Margin of Bay of Biscay.- North Sea (North-West European Basin).- Newfoundland Margin.- South Labrador Margin.- Labrador Marginal Trough.- West Rockall Plateau and East Greenland Margins.- Deep-Ocean Floor.- General Structure.- Cretaceous to Eocene.- Horizon R4.- Oligocene to Present.- 6. Sediment Provenance and Properties.- General.- Present Volumes.- Volumes for Entire Earth.- Compaction.- Original Volumes.- Rates of Deposition of Total Sediments.- Sources.- Detrital.- Organic.- Pathways.- Composition and Provenance of Surface Layer.- General Description and Classification.- Grain Size.- Detrital Sands.- Calcium Carbonate.- Productivity of Larger Planktonic Foraminiferans.- Amorphous Silica.- Organic Carbon.- Organic Nitrogen.- Organic Phosphorus.- Organic Matter—Mineralization and Budget.- Clay Minerals.- Authigenic Minerals.- General Background.- Ferromanganese Nodules and Pavements.- Phosphorite.- Glauconite.- Zeolites.- Barite.- Opal and Chert.- Others.- Echo Character.- 7. Evolution of the Ocean Floor.- Purpose.- Continental Margins.- Relationship to Igneous Crusts.- Volume of Sediments.- Classification by Plate Movement.- Classification by Stage of Development.- Subsidence.- Basins.- Distribution.- Classification.- Discontinuities in Deposition.- Changing Outlines and Depths.- Changing Sediments.- Main Events in History of Atlantic Ocean.- Perspective.- Genesis—Early Rifting Phase (Permian).- Mid-Rift Phase (Triassic).- Late Phase (Latest Triassic—Early Jurassic).- Mid-Cimmerian Orogeny and Beginning of Sea-FloorSpreading.- Drifting—Early Phase (Middle Jurassic).- Carbonate Platform Phase (Late Jurassic to Earliest Cretaceous).- Wealden and Black-Shale Facies (Early Cretaceous to Earliest Late Cretaceous).- The Great Flood (Late Cretaceous).- The Face of the Abyss (Paleogene).- Background.- Europe and Africa.- Greenland, North America, and South America.- Mid-Ocean.- Oceanic Sediment Drifts and Coming of Man (Neogene).- Background.- Europe and Africa.- Greenland, North America, and South America.- Mid-Ocean.- The Great Ice Age and the Ascent of Man (Quaternary).- 8. Interfaces Between Ocean and Man.- Historical Background.- The Beginning.- Increase of Population.- Changing Environments.- Changing Needs of Humans.- Relation to Coasts.- Food Supply.- Past.- Present.- Future.- Water Supply.- Transportation.- Fish.- Freight.- Military.- Building Materials.- Building Sites.- General.- Mud Flats.- Sand Beaches.- Seacliffs.- Waste Disposal.- General.- Float.- Sink.- Dissolve.- Categories.- Halogenated Hydrocarbons.- Heavy Metals.- Radionuclides.- Petroleum.- Miscellaneous.- Overview.- Petroleum.- Chemistry.- Origins and Sources.- Accumulation.- Production.- Future Prospects.- Offshore Expectations.- Gas Hydrates.- World Budget.- Energy in Water.- Hard Minerals.- Continental Shelf.- Deep-Ocean Floor.- Ownership.