Social Exchange: Advances in Theory and Research

ISBN-13: 9781461330899 / Angielski / Miękka / 2011 / 306 str.

Kenneth Gergen

Opis

INTRODUCTION In developing scientific theory there is perhaps nothing more propi- tious than a compelling metaphor. If the metaphor is rich in imagery, complexly differentiated, emotionally evocative, and vitally wedded to the cultural lore, the theory to which it gives rise may enjoy a long and vigorous life. If the metaphor is sufficiently powerful, the theory may even be sustained in independence of systematic empirical support. Role theory is likely to remain prosperous so long as there is a thriving theater; decision theory experienced a dramatic rejuvenation with the development of the electronic computer; and, in spite of its archaic construction, Jungian theory will prevail so long as ancient myths and symbols continue to haunt us (d. Smith, 1978). From this standpoint, the development of social exchange theory is hardly surprising. Ex- perience with the marketplace is extensive in society, its images are both complex and richly evocative, its challenges are often exciting and its lessons sometimes painful. It is thus both intellectually and emo- tionally invigorating to consider the social arena in all its diversity as an extended market in which each individual seeks to maximize profits. The economic metaphor is hardly new to the social sciences. The recent intellectual roots of contemporary exchange theory can be traced to the works of Claude Levi-Strauss, Marcel Mauss, Karl Marx, and B.

Spis treści

I Theoretical Extension.- 1 A Theory of Indebtednes.- Definition of Indebtedness.- Determinants of the Magnitude of Indebtedness.- The Donor’s Motives for Aiding the Recipient.- The Magnitude of the Recipient’s and the Donor’s Rewards and Costs.- The Locus of Causality of the Donor’s Action.- Cues Emitted by Comparison Others.- Assessment of the Magnitude of Indebtedness.- Self-Reports.- Behavioral and Cognitive Attempts to Reduce Indebtedness.- Comparison between Indebtedness and Inequity.- Cultural Variations.- 2 What Should Be Done with Equity Theory? New Approaches to the Study of Fairness in Social Relationships.- The Problem of Allocation.- Issues in Equity Theory.- A Multidimensional Approach to Distributive Fairness.- The Unidimensional Approach of Equity Theory.- The Multidimensional Approach of Justice Judgment Theory.- Judgments of Distributive Fairness.- The Perception of Procedural Fairness.- Procedural Fairness Defined.- Structural Components in Cognitive Maps of the Allocative Process.- Justice Rules for Evaluating Procedural Fairness.- The Relative Weight of Procedural Rules.- The Impact of Perceived Fairness on Behavior.- The Importance of Fairness.- Activation of the Justice Judgment Sequence.- Concern for Fairness and Other Causes of “Fair” Behavior.- A Distinction between Fair and Quasi-Fair Behavior.- Summary.- 3 The Search for Uniqueness and Valuation of Scarcity: Neglected Dimensions of Value in Exchange Theory.- Conformity as Social Exchange.- Uniqueness Studies.- Uniqueness as a Neglected Cost.- Uniqueness Attributes.- Scarcity.- Names.- Clothing.- Dates and Mates.- Beliefs.- Performance.- Deindividuation and Uniqueness.- Summary.- 4 Resource Theory: Interpersonal Behavior as Exchange.- Six Resource Classes.- Relationship between Resource Exchange and Interpersonal Behavior.- Differentiation of Resources in Childhood.- Exchange Outcomes and Environmental Influences.- Relationship between Self and Other.- Relationship between Giving and Taking.- Relationship between Interpersonal Situation and Exchange.- Time for Processing Input.- Delay of Reward.- Optimum Group Size.- Empirical Support for Resource Theory.- Homogeneity of Classes.- Similarity and Substitution.- Structure.- Exchange.- Effect of Restrictions.- Helping Behavior.- Recent Development.- Differentiation of Resources in Hetero- and Homosexual Males.- Asymmetry in Generalization.- Further Results.- Rules of the Game.- Application to Problems of Society.- II Exchange Theory in Specialized Settings.- 5 Leadership and Social Exchange Processes.- Leadership in Retrospect.- Leadership as a Transactional Influence Process.- Leader Legitimacy and Social Exchange.- Idiosyncrasy Credit and Innovation.- Leader Legitimacy and System Progress.- Leadership Effectiveness and a Fair Exchange.- 6 The Study of Organizations through a Resource-Exchange Paradigm.- Resource Exchanges in Organizational Analysis.- Historical Development.- R—E Processes in Organization—Environment Relationships.- Some R—E “Extra-Economic” Aspects of Interorganizational Relations.- Organizational Coping.- Interorganizational Networks.- Power and Dependence.- Implications of the R-E Paradigm for Intraorganizational Processes.- Internal Processes: Some Macrolevel Studies.- Internal Processes: Some Micro-Considerations.- Conclusions.- 7 Sex Roles, Social Exchange, and Couples.- Role Expectations.- Ascribed and Achieved Status.- Evaluation of Male and Female Role Occupants.- Partner Markets and Initial Formation.- Intrinsic Compatibility.- Components of Compatibility.- Overall Compatibility.- Relations among Formation, Compatibility, and Stability.- Market Characteristics and Mean Compatibility.- Effects of Loners on Stability.- Preliminary Research Support.- Summary.- 8 An “Incremental Exchange” Perspective on the Pair Relationship: Interpersonal Reward and Level of Involvement.- Exchange Theory in a Sequential Perspective.- Incremental Exchange Theory.- The Relate Model.- Simulation of a Romantic Involvement.- The Meaning of “Reward” in Dyadic Interaction.- Dimensions of Reward.- Behavioral versus Relational Rewards.- Other Dimensions of Reward.- Adaptation Levels, Comparison Levels, and Gradients.- The Meaning of Involvement.- Toward a Revised Model.- Reconsidering the Simulation of Interpersonal Involvement.- Differing Levels of Involvement.- Toward a Revised Simulation of a Heterosexual Relationship.- Conclusions.- Implications for Exchange Theory.- III Critical Analysis.- 9 Structural and Motivational Approaches to Social Exchange.- The Norm of Reciprocity and Normative Values.- Mauss and Gouldner Compared.- Rules of Exchange.- Strategies of Exchange.- Cultural Frame of Reference.- Structural versus Motivational Approaches.- The Structural Approach.- The Motivational Approach.- Summary.- 10 The Myth of Reciprocity.- Anthropological Approaches toward Reciprocity and Some Hypotheses.- The Ethnographic Setting of the Study.- The Society.- Data Gathering.- The Methods of Handling the Data.- Testing Various Reciprocity Theories.- The Regression Analysis and Its Implications.- Reciprocity and Kinship Distance.- Native Interpretations versus Our Interpretations of Exchange Transactions.- Summary and Conclusions.- 11 New Developments in Operant Conditioning and Their Implications.- The Experimental Analysis of Behavior: Methods and Assumptions.- Is Learning in Nature Biologically Neutral? The Ethological View.- Instinctive Drift.- Taste-Aversion Learning.- Is the Skinner Box Biologically Neutral?.- Implications of Specialized Learning for Extensions of Operant Conditioning Principles to Human Affairs.- Summary.- 12 Exchange Theory: The Transient and the Enduring.- Enlightenment Effects: Exchange Theory as Prescription.- Level of Abstraction and the Incorporation of Change.- Theoretical Utility and the Exchange Orientation.- The Explanatory Function.- The Sensitizing Function.- The Organization of Experience.- The Integration Function.- The Generative Function.- The Value-Sustaining Function.- Conclusion.- References.