Reverse Osmosis: Industrial Processes and Applications

ISBN-13: 9781119724742 / Angielski / Twarda / 2023

Jane Kucera

Spis treści

Preface to the 3rd Edition xxiAcknowledgements xxiiiSection I: Fundamentals 11 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis: History, Challenges, and Future Directions 31.1 Introduction 31.2 A Brief History of Reverse Osmosis 51.2.1 Early Development 51.2.2 Advances 1970s-1980s 101.2.3 Advances from 1990s through the Early 2000s 121.3 Challenges and Prospects 141.3.1 Membrane Materials Development 151.3.2 Modification of Element Construction for Ultra-High Pressure or High-Temperature Operation 171.3.2.1 Ultra-High Pressure Spiral Wound RO 171.3.2.2 High-Temperature Elements 181.3.3 Optimization of RO Element Feed Channel Spacer 191.3.4 Other Advances and Future Requirements 231.4 Summary 26Symbols 26Nomenclature 27References 272 Principles and Terminology 332.1 Semipermeable Membranes 332.2 Osmosis 332.3 Reverse Osmosis 352.4 Basic Performance Parameters: Recovery, Rejection, and Flux 352.4.1 Recovery and Concentration Factor 352.4.2 Rejection 382.4.3 Flux 412.4.3.1 Water Flux 412.4.3.2 Solute Flux 432.5 Filtration 432.5.1 Dead-End Filtration 432.5.2 Cross-Flow Filtration 432.6 Concentration Polarization 45Symbols 47Nomenclature 48References 483 Membranes: Transport Models, Characterization, and Elements 513.1 Membrane Transport Models 513.1.1 Solution-Diffusion Transport Model 523.1.2 Modified Solution-Diffusion Transport Models 553.1.2.1 Solution-Diffusion Imperfection Model 553.1.2.2 Extended Solution-Diffusion Model 563.1.3 Pore-Based Transport Models 563.1.4 Models Based on Non-Equilibrium Thermodynamics 573.2 Polymeric Membranes 573.2.1 Cellulose Acetate 573.2.2 Linear Polyamide (Aramids) 613.2.3 Fully Aromatic Polyamide Composite Membranes 633.2.3.1 NS-100 Membrane 643.2.3.2 FT-30 Composite Membrane 673.2.4 Characterization of CA and Composite Polyamide Membranes 733.2.4.1 Surface Roughness 733.2.4.2 Zeta Potential (Surface Charge) 763.2.4.3 Hydrophilicity 763.2.5 Other Membrane Polymers 783.3 Membrane Elements 803.3.1 Plate and Frame Elements 813.3.2 Tubular Elements 823.3.3 Hollow Fine Fiber Elements 833.3.4 Spiral Wound Elements 843.4 Specialty Membranes and Elements 913.4.1 Specialty Membranes 913.4.1.1 Dry Membranes 913.4.1.2 Boron-Rejecting Membranes 923.4.2 Specialty Elements 933.4.2.1 Sanitary Elements 933.4.2.2 Disc Tube Elements 943.4.2.3 Vibratory Shear Enhanced Processing (VSEP) Elements and System 943.4.2.4 Ultra-High Pressure and High Temperature Elements 95Symbols 95Nomenclature 96References 97Section II: System Design and Engineering 1034 Basic Design Arrangements and Concentration Polarization Guidelines 1054.1 Arrays and Stages 1054.1.1 Recovery per System Array 1064.1.2 Element-By-Element Flow and Quality Distribution 1084.1.3 Flux Guidelines 1094.1.4 Cross-Flow Velocity Guidelines for Array Design 1114.1.5 Concentrate Recycle 1124.2 Passes 113Symbols 115Nomenclature 115References 1155 RO System Design Using Design Software 1175.1 RO System Design Guidelines 1175.2 Step-by-Step Design--Sample Problem 1185.2.1 Step 1--Water Flux 1195.2.2 Step 2--Membrane Selection 1195.2.3 Step 3--Number of Elements Required 1195.2.4 Step 4--System Array 1205.3 Design Software 1215.3.1 Water Application Value Engine (WAVE)-- DuPont Water Solutions 1235.3.2 IMSDesign--Hydranautics 1315.3.3 Q+ Projection Software LGChem 1355.4 Optimum Design Result for the Sample Problem 140Symbols 141Nomenclature 141References 1426 Design Considerations 1436.1 Feed Water Source and Quality 1436.1.1 Feed Water Source 1436.1.2 Feed Water Quality and Guidelines 1456.1.3 pH 1476.1.3.1 pH Profile Through an RO System-- Alkalinity Relationships 1486.1.3.2 pH and Membrane Scaling Potential 1486.1.3.3 pH Effects on Solute Rejection and Water Permeability 1496.2 System Operations 1496.2.1 Pressure 1496.2.2 Compaction 1516.2.3 Temperature 1556.2.4 Balancing Flows 1566.2.5 Designing for Variable Flow Demand 1576.3 Existing RO System Design Considerations 1576.3.1 Changing Membranes 1576.3.1.1 Changing Membrane Area 1586.3.1.2 Changing Membrane Types 1586.3.1.3 Mixing Membrane Types 1586.3.2 Increasing Recovery 1596.3.3 Changing Feed Water Sources 1606.3.4 Reducing Permeate Flow 161Symbols 161Nomenclature 161References 1627 RO Equipment 1637.1 Basic RO Skid Components 1637.1.1 Cartridge Filters 1647.1.2 High Pressure Feed Pump 1727.1.3 Pressure Vessels 1777.2 Skid Design Considerations 1817.2.1 Piping Materials of Construction 1817.2.2 Feed Distribution Headers 1837.2.3 Stage-by-Stage Cleaning 1847.2.4 Sampling and Profiling/Probing Connections 1877.2.5 Instrumentation 1887.2.6 Controls and Data Acquisition/Analysis 1937.2.6.1 System Control 1937.2.6.2 Data Acquisition and Analysis 1947.2.7 Designs for Variable Permeate Flow Demand 1957.3 Energy Recovery Devices (ERDs) 1967.3.1 ERD Types 1967.3.2 ERD Applications for RO 1977.3.2.1 Single-Stage RO 1977.3.2.2 Multi-Stage RO 1977.4 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Equipment 2007.5 Mobile RO Equipment 203Symbols 205Nomenclature 205References 206Section III: Membrane Deposition and Degradation: Causes, Effects, and Mitigation via Pretreatment and Operations 2078 Membrane Scaling 2118.1 What is Membrane Scale? 2118.2 Effects of Scale on Membrane Performance 2128.3 Hardness Scales 2158.3.1 Types of Hardness Scale 2158.3.1.1 Carbonate-Based Hardness Scales 2158.3.1.2 Sulfate-Based Hardness Scales 2168.3.1.3 Other Calcium Scales: Calcium Phosphate and Calcium Fluoride 2188.3.2 Mitigation of Hardness Scales 2198.3.2.1 Chemical Pretreatment--Acid and Antiscalant Dosing 2208.3.2.2 Non-Chemical Pretreatment--Sodium Softening and Nanofiltration 2218.3.2.3 Operational Techniques--Flushing, Reverse Flow, and Closed Circuit Desalination 2258.4 Silica Scale 2268.4.1 Forms and Reactions of Silica 2278.4.2 Factors Affecting Silica Scale Formation 2288.4.3 Mitigation of Silica Scale 2328.5 Struvite 2368.5.1 What is Struvite? 2368.5.2 Mitigation of Struvite 2388.6 Scaling Mitigation Guidelines--Summary 239Symbols 240Nomenclature 240References 2409 Generalized Membrane Fouling 2499.1 What is Membrane Fouling? 2499.2 Classification and Measurement of Potential Foulants 2509.2.1 Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Particulates 2519.2.2 Colloids 2529.2.2.1 Measurement of Colloids for RO Applications--Silt Density Index (SDI15) 2529.2.2.2 Measure of Colloids--Modified Fouling Indices 2559.2.2.3 Summary of Colloidal Fouling Indices 2579.2.3 Natural Organic Material (NOM) 2579.2.4 Other Organics 2599.2.5 Other Foulants: Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants, and Silicone-Based Antifoams 2599.2.6 Metals: Aluminum, Iron, Manganese, and Sulfur 2599.2.6.1 Aluminum 2599.2.6.2 Iron and Manganese 2619.2.6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide 2629.3 Effects of Fouling on Membrane Performance 2659.3.1 Effects of Inorganic Foulants 2669.3.1.1 Fouling with Larger Settleable and Supra-Colloidal Solids 2669.3.1.2 Cake Layer Surface Fouling with Colloids 2669.3.1.3 Feed Channel Fouling 2689.3.1.4 Summary of Fouling Effects of Inorganic Particulates and Colloids 2719.3.2 Effects of NOM and Other Organics 2739.3.2.1 Effects of NOM--Humic Acids 2739.3.2.2 Effects of Hydrocarbons 2769.3.2.3 Effects of Cationic Coagulants and Surfactants 2789.3.2.4 Summary of the Effects of Organic Surfactant and Antifoam Fouling on Membrane Performance 2799.4 Pretreatment to Minimize Membrane Fouling 2799.4.1 Primary Pretreatment--Clarification for Colloids and Organics (NOM) Removal 2809.4.1.1 Coagulation 2809.4.1.2 Flocculation 2839.4.2 Pressure Filtration: Particles, SDI15 , and Organics Removal 2839.4.2.1 Multimedia Pressure Filters: Suspended Solids Removal 2839.4.2.2 Catalytic Filters: Soluble Iron, Manganese, and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 2879.4.2.3 Carbon Filters: TOC Removal 2929.4.2.4 Walnut Shell Filters: Hydrocarbon Oil Removal 2969.4.2.5 Cartridge Filters: What is Their Purpose? 2999.4.3 Membrane Filtration Turbidity, SDI 15 , and Metal Hydroxide Removal 3009.4.3.1 Membrane Materials and Elements 3019.4.3.2 Membrane Filtration Operations-- Polymeric Membranes 3069.4.3.3 Membrane Filtration as Pretreatment for RO 3119.4.4 Nanofiltration (NF): Organics and Color Removal 3219.5 Feed Water Quality Guidelines to Minimize Membrane Fouling 323Symbols 324Nomenclature 324References 32610 RO Membrane Biofouling 33510.1 What is RO Membrane Biofouling? 33510.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Biofouling 33910.2.1 Polyamide RO Membrane Characteristics 33910.2.1.1 Membrane Surface Roughness 33910.2.1.2 Surface Charge and Zeta Potential 33910.2.1.3 Membrane Hydrophilicity 33910.2.2 Feed Water Matrix 34010.2.2.1 Concentration of Microorganisms and Nutrients 34010.2.2.2 Feed Water Ionic Strength and pH 34110.2.2.3 Pretreatment Antiscalants 34110.2.2.4 Feed Water Organic Concentration and Fouling 34110.2.3 RO System Hydrodynamics 34110.3 Effects of Biofouling on Membrane Performance 34210.3.1 Scale Formation 34210.3.2 Hydrodynamic Effects on Performance 34210.4 Measurement of Biofouling 34310.4.1 Predictive Techniques 34310.4.1.1 Assimilable Organic Carbon (AOC) 34310.4.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and the Biofilm Formation Rate (BFR) 34410.4.2 Plate Counts 34410.4.2.1 Heterotrophic Plate Counts (HPC) 34410.4.2.2 Total Direct Counts (TDC) 34510.5 Mitigation Techniques 34510.5.1 Pretreatment 34610.5.1.1 Reduction of Feed Water Nutrients and Microorganisms 34610.5.2 Disinfection 34810.5.2.1 Physiochemical Disinfection Method-- Ultraviolet (UV) Light 34810.5.2.2 Chemical Disinfection--Oxidizing Biocides 35310.5.2.3 Chemical Disinfection--Non-Oxidizing Biocide 36810.5.2.4 Biocides Not Recommended for Use with Polyamide RO Membranes 37010.5.2.5 Chemical Disinfection--Prospective Biocides for RO 37010.5.3 Membrane Cleaning for Biofouling Removal 37310.5.4 Membrane "Sterilization" 37510.5.5 Biocide Flushing 37510.6 Biofouling and Mitigation Summary 376Symbols 378Nomenclature 378References 37911 Membrane Degradation 38711.1 Chemical Degradation 38811.1.1 Polyamide Layer Degradation--Oxidation 38811.1.1.1 Chlorine 38811.1.1.2 Chloramine 39611.1.1.3 Chlorine Dioxide 39811.1.2 Polysulfone Support Layer Degradation 40011.1.3 Polyester Fabric Degradation--Hydrolysis 40211.1.4 Prevention of Chemical Damage 40211.1.4.1 Removal of Oxidizers 40211.1.4.2 Protection of Membrane Support Layers 40411.2 Mechanical Damage 40411.2.1 Physical Membrane Damage Due to Abrasion 40411.2.2 Physical Membrane Damage Resulting from Operational Factors 407Symbols 412Nomenclature 412References 412Section IV: System Monitoring, Normalization, and Troubleshooting 41712 Data Collection and Normalization 41912.1 Data Collection 41912.2 Data Normalization 422Symbols 427Subscripts 428Nomenclature 428References 42813 Membrane Issues and Troubleshooting 43113.1 Observed Performance Issues 43213.1.1 High Permeate Solute Concentration 43213.1.1.1 Increase in Feed Water Concentration of Ions 43313.1.1.2 Hardness Scaling 43313.1.1.3 Membrane Damage 43413.1.1.4 Temperature Increase/Pressure Decrease 43513.1.1.5 System Operations and Mechanical Issues 43813.1.2 Changes in Permeate Flow 43913.1.3 Changes in Feed Pressure 43913.1.4 High Differential Pressure 44013.2 Common Causes of Performance Failures 44513.2.1 Mechanical Failures 44513.2.2 RO Equipment Design 44513.2.3 Operational Problems 44613.2.4 Feed Water Quality Issues 44613.2.5 Membrane Issues 44613.3 Troubleshooting Techniques 44713.3.1 Mechanical Inspection 44713.3.2 Cartridge Filter Inspection 44713.3.3 Water Analyses 44813.3.4 RO Projections 44913.3.5 Profiling and Probing 44913.3.5.1 Profiling 44913.3.5.2 Probing 45213.3.6 Normalized Data Analysis 45513.3.7 Autopsy 45713.3.7.1 Visual Inspection--External 45813.3.7.2 Visual Inspection--Internal 459Symbols 471Nomenclature 471References 472Section V: Off-Line Activities: Membrane Cleaning, Flushing, and Layup 47514 Membrane Cleaning 47714.1 When to Clean 47814.2 Cleaning Chemicals 47914.2.1 High pH Cleaning 48014.2.2 Low pH Cleaning 48114.3 Cleaning Equipment Design 48314.3.1 Design of the RO Skid for Effective Cleaning 48314.3.2 Design of the Cleaning Skid 48414.3.2.1 Cleaning Tank 48414.3.2.2 Cartridge Filters 48614.3.2.3 Cleaning Pump 48614.4 Cleaning Techniques 48714.4.1 Conventional Cleaning 48714.4.2 Two-Phase Cleaning 48914.4.3 Reverse Cleaning 49014.4.4 Preventative Cleaning 49014.4.4.1 Extrapolative Preventative Cleaning 49114.4.4.2 Direct-Osmosis High-Salinity (DO-HS) On-Line Cleaning Technique 49114.5 Determining the Efficacy of Cleaning 49314.6 Clean-In-Place (CIP) Versus Offsite Cleaning 49414.6.1 CIP 49414.6.2 Off-Site Cleaning 49414.7 Membrane Disinfection 49514.7.1 Hydrogen Peroxide/Peroxyacetic Acid 49514.7.2 Non-Oxidizing Biocides 49714.7.2.1 DBNPA 49714.7.2.2 Isothiazolones--CMIT/MIT 49914.7.2.3 Other Non-Oxidizing Biocides 500Symbols 500Nomenclature 500References 50115 Controlling Off-Line Membrane Deposition via Flushing and Layup 50515.1 Membrane Flushing 50515.1.1 End of Service Flush 50615.1.2 Stand-By Flush 50615.1.3 Return to Service Flush 50715.2 Membrane Layup 50815.2.1 Short-Term Layup 50815.2.2 Long-Term Layup 50815.2.2.1 Sodium Metabisulfite (SMBS) 50815.2.2.2 DBNPA 51015.2.2.3 CMIT/MIT 51015.3 Membrane Preservation 510Nomenclature 512References 512Section VI: Sustainability and Future Prospects 51516 Concentrate Management 51716.1 Discharge 51716.1.1 Discharge to Surface Waters 51716.1.2 Discharge to Sewer 51816.1.3 Discharge to On-Site Treatment Facility 51816.1.4 Deep Well Injection 51816.2 Land Application 51916.2.1 Irrigation 51916.2.2 Evaporation Ponds 51916.3 Reuse 51916.3.1 Direct Reuse 52016.3.1.1 Wash Down Systems 52016.3.1.2 Cooling Tower Make-Up 52016.3.2 Treated Concentrate for Reuse--Brine Minimization 52016.3.2.1 Recovery RO Systems 52016.3.2.2 Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) 52216.4 Off-Site Disposal 52316.5 Emerging Technologies for Concentrate Management 52316.5.1 Membrane Distillation (MD) 52416.5.2 Forward Osmosis (FO) 526Symbols 529Nomenclature 529References 52917 High-Recovery Reverse Osmosis 53117.1 Single-Step High Recovery Processes 53117.1.1 Closed Circuit RO (CCRO) 53117.1.1.1 Managing Scale Formation 53317.1.1.2 Managing Membrane Fouling 53517.1.1.3 Energy Savings 53617.1.2 Osmotically-Assisted RO (OARO) 53817.1.3 Pulse Flow RO (PFRO (TM)) 54217.1.4 Feed Flow Reversal (FFR) 54517.2 Enhanced High Recovery Processes with Interstage Solute Precipitation 54817.2.1 Intermediate Concentrate Demineralization (ICD) 54917.2.2 Accelerated Seeded Precipitation (ASP) 55117.3 Multi-Step High Recovery Membrane Processes 55217.3.1 Toward Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) 55217.3.2 Challenging Waters and Wastewaters 55317.3.3 Commercialized Multi-Step, High-Recovery RO Processes 55317.3.3.1 Optimized Pretreatment and Unique Separation (OPUS(r)) 55417.3.3.2 High Efficiency Reverse Osmosis (HERO(r)) 556Symbols 558Nomenclature 558References 55918 New and Alternative Membrane Materials For Sustainability 56518.1 Specific Requirements to Improve Sustainability 56618.1.1 Membrane Performance 56618.1.2 Fouling Resistance 56818.1.3 Chlorine (Oxidant) Tolerance 57018.1.4 Energy-Water Nexus 57018.2 Membrane Materials to Meet RO Demineralization Challenges 57118.2.1 Modification of Polyamide Interfacial Polymerization (IP) Preparation Chemistries and Techniques 57218.2.2 Membrane Surface Modifications 57518.2.3 Nanotechnology and Nanoparticle Membranes 57818.2.3.1 Carbon Nanotube (CNT) Nanocomposite Membranes 57818.2.3.2 Thin Film Nanoparticle (TFN) Membranes 58418.2.4 Graphene Oxide (GO)-Based Membranes 58618.2.5 Biomimetic Aquaporin Membranes 591Symbols 594Nomenclature 594References 595Index 601

O autorze

Jane Kucera is a senior technical consultant with Nalco Water, an Ecolab Company, where she designs water and wastewater use and reuse facilities. With over 40 years of experience, she has an MS in chemical engineering and has authored two books, both with Scrivener Publishing, the first and second editions of Reverse Osmosis, and the first and second editions of Desalination: Water from Water. She is active in the International Water Conference (IWC) and served as the 2023 Conference Chair. She received the 2021 Award of Merit offered by the Engineers' Society of Western Pennsylvania for her work in the water treatment industry and contributions to the IWC. Jane has a Teaching Credential from the State of California and taught chemistry at Linfield University, Los Angeles Valley College, and Central Oregon Community College.