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2nd Ed. A comprehensive look at the fundamentals and latest research in tribology, expanded and revised to include MEMS tribology, green tribology and rolling lubrication
About the Authors xxi
Second Edition Preface xxiii
Preface xxv
Introduction xxvii
Part I Lubrication Theory 1
1 Properties of Lubricants 3
1.1 Lubrication States 3
1.2 Density of Lubricant 5
1.3 Viscosity of Lubricant 7
1.3.1 Dynamic Viscosity and Kinematic Viscosity 7
1.3.1.1 Dynamic Viscosity 7
1.3.1.2 Kinematic Viscosity 8
1.3.2 Relationship between Viscosity and Temperature 9
1.3.2.1 Viscosity Temperature Equations 9
1.3.2.2 ASTM Viscosity Temperature Diagram 9
1.3.2.3 Viscosity Index 10
1.3.3 Relationship between Viscosity and Pressure 10
1.3.3.1 Relationships between Viscosity, Temperature and Pressure 11
1.4 Non–Newtonian Behaviors 12
1.4.1 Ree Eyring Constitutive Equation 12
1.4.2 Visco–Plastic Constitutive Equation 13
1.4.3 Circular Constitutive Equation 13
1.4.4 Temperature–Dependent Constitutive Equation 13
1.4.5 Visco–Elastic Constitutive Equation 14
1.4.6 Nonlinear Visco–Elastic Constitutive Equation 14
1.4.7 A Simple Visco–Elastic Constitutive Equation 15
1.4.7.1 Pseudoplasticity 16
1.4.7.2 Thixotropy 16
1.5 Wettability of Lubricants 16
1.5.1 Wetting and Contact Angle 17
1.5.2 Surface Tension 17
1.6 Measurement and Conversion of Viscosity 19
1.6.1 Rotary Viscometer 19
1.6.2 Off–Body Viscometer 19
1.6.3 Capillary Viscometer 19
References 21
2 Basic Theories of Hydrodynamic Lubrication 22
2.1 Reynolds Equation 22
2.1.1 Basic Assumptions 22
2.1.2 Derivation of the Reynolds Equation 23
2.1.2.1 Force Balance 23
2.1.2.2 General Reynolds Equation 25
2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 26
2.2.1 Mechanism of Hydrodynamic Lubrication 26
2.2.2 Boundary Conditions and Initial Conditions of the Reynolds Equation 27
2.2.2.1 Boundary Conditions 27
2.2.2.2 Initial Conditions 28
2.2.3 Calculation of Hydrodynamic Lubrication 28
2.2.3.1 Load–Carrying CapacityW 28
2.2.3.2 Friction ForceF 28
2.2.3.3 Lubricant FlowQ 29
2.3 Elastic Contact Problems 29
2.3.1 Line Contact 29
2.3.1.1 Geometry and Elasticity Simulations 29
2.3.1.2 Contact Area and Stress 30
2.3.2 Point Contact 31
2.3.2.1 Geometric Relationship 31
2.3.2.2 Contact Area and Stress 32
2.4 Entrance Analysis of EHL 34
2.4.1 Elastic Deformation of Line Contacts 35
2.4.2 Reynolds Equation Considering the Effect of Pressure–Viscosity 35
2.4.3 Discussion 36
2.4.4 Grubin FilmThickness Formula 37
2.5 Grease Lubrication 38
References 40
3 Numerical Methods of Lubrication Calculation 41
3.1 Numerical Methods of Lubrication 42
3.1.1 Finite Difference Method 42
3.1.1.1 Hydrostatic Lubrication 44
3.1.1.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication 44
3.1.2 Finite Element Method and Boundary Element Method 48
3.1.2.1 Finite Element Method (FEM) 48
3.1.2.2 Boundary Element Method 49
3.1.3 Numerical Techniques 51
3.1.3.1 Parameter Transformation 51
3.1.3.2 Numerical Integration 51
3.1.3.3 Empirical Formula 53
3.1.3.4 SuddenThickness Change 53
3.2 Numerical Solution of the Energy Equation 54
3.2.1 Conduction and Convection of Heat 55
3.2.1.1 Conduction Heat Hd 55
3.2.1.2 Convection Heat Hv 55
3.2.2 Energy Equation 56
3.2.3 Numerical Solution of Energy Equation 59
3.3 Numerical Solution of Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication 60
3.3.1 EHL Numerical Solution of Line Contacts 60
3.3.1.1 Basic Equations 60
3.3.1.2 Solution of the Reynolds Equation 62
3.3.1.3 Calculation of Elastic Deformation 62
3.3.1.4 Dowson Higginson FilmThickness Formula of Line Contact EHL 64
3.3.2 EHL Numerical Solution of Point Contacts 64
3.3.2.1 The Reynolds Equation 65
3.3.2.2 Elastic Deformation Equation 66
3.3.2.3 Hamrock Dowson FilmThickness Formula of Point Contact EHL 66
3.4 Multi–Grid Method for Solving EHL Problems 68
3.4.1 Basic Principles of Multi–Grid Method 68
3.4.1.1 Grid Structure 68
3.4.1.2 Discrete Equation 68
3.4.1.3 Transformation 69
3.4.2 Nonlinear Full Approximation Scheme for the Multi–Grid Method 69
3.4.3 V andWIterations 71
3.4.4 Multi–Grid Solution of EHL Problems 71
3.4.4.1 Iteration Methods 71
3.4.4.2 Iterative Division 72
3.4.4.3 Relaxation Factors 73
3.4.4.4 Numbers of Iteration Times 73
3.4.5 Multi–Grid Integration Method 73
3.4.5.1 Transfer Pressure Downwards 74
3.4.5.2 Transfer Integral Coefficients Downwards 74
3.4.5.3 Integration on the Coarser Mesh 74
3.4.5.4 Transfer Back Integration Results 75
3.4.5.5 Modification on the Finer Mesh 75
References 76
4 Lubrication Design of Typical Mechanical Elements 78
4.1 Slider and Thrust Bearings 78
4.1.1 Basic Equations 78
4.1.1.1 Reynolds Equation 78
4.1.1.2 Boundary Conditions 78
4.1.1.3 Continuous Conditions 79
4.1.2 Solutions of Slider Lubrication 79
4.2 Journal Bearings 81
4.2.1 Axis Position and Clearance Shape 81
4.2.2 Infinitely Narrow Bearings 82
4.2.2.1 Load–Carrying Capacity 83
4.2.2.2 Deviation Angle and Axis Track 83
4.2.2.3 Flow 84
4.2.2.4 Frictional Force and Friction Coefficient 84
4.2.3 InfinitelyWide Bearings 85
4.3 Hydrostatic Bearings 88
4.3.1 Hydrostatic Thrust Plate 89
4.3.2 Hydrostatic Journal Bearings 90
4.3.3 Bearing Stiffness andThrottle 90
4.3.3.1 Constant Flow Pump 91
4.3.3.2 Capillary Throttle 91
4.3.3.3 Thin–Walled OrificeThrottle 92
4.4 Squeeze Bearings 92
4.4.1 Rectangular Plate Squeeze 93
4.4.2 Disc Squeeze 94
4.4.3 Journal Bearing Squeeze 94
4.5 Dynamic Bearings 96
4.5.1 Reynolds Equation of Dynamic Journal Bearings 96
4.5.2 Simple Dynamic Bearing Calculation 98
4.5.2.1 A Sudden Load 98
4.5.2.2 Rotating Load 99
4.5.3 General Dynamic Bearings 100
4.5.3.1 Infinitely Narrow Bearings 100
4.5.3.2 Superimposition Method of Pressures 101
4.5.3.3 Superimposition Method of Carrying Loads 101
4.6 Gas Lubrication Bearings 102
4.6.1 Basic Equations of Gas Lubrication 102
4.6.2 Types of Gas Lubrication Bearings 103
4.7 Rolling Contact Bearings 106
4.7.1 Equivalent Radius R 107
4.7.2 Average Velocity U 107
4.7.3 Carrying Load PerWidthW/b 107
4.8 Gear Lubrication 108
4.8.1 Involute Gear Transmission 109
4.8.1.1 Equivalent Curvature Radius R 110
4.8.1.2 Average Velocity U 111
4.8.1.3 Load PerWidthW/b 112
4.8.2 Arc Gear Transmission EHL 112
4.9 Cam Lubrication 114
References 116
5 Special Fluid Medium Lubrication 118
5.1 Magnetic Hydrodynamic Lubrication 118
5.1.1 Composition and Classification of Magnetic Fluids 118
5.1.2 Properties of Magnetic Fluids 119
5.1.2.1 Density of Magnetic Fluids 119
5.1.2.2 Viscosity of Magnetic Fluids 119
5.1.2.3 Magnetization Strength of Magnetic Fluids 120
5.1.2.4 Stability of Magnetic Fluids 120
5.1.3 Basic Equations of Magnetic Hydrodynamic Lubrication 121
5.1.4 Influence Factors on Magnetic EHL 123
5.2 Micro–Polar Hydrodynamic Lubrication 124
5.2.1 Basic Equations of Micro–Polar Fluid Lubrication 124
5.2.1.1 Basic Equations of Micro–Polar Fluid Mechanics 124
5.2.1.2 Reynolds Equation of Micro–Polar Fluid 125
5.2.2 Influence Factors on Micro–Polar Fluid Lubrication 128
5.2.2.1 Influence of Load 128
5.2.2.2 Main Influence Parameters of Micro–Polar Fluid 129
5.3 Liquid Crystal Lubrication 130
5.3.1 Types of Liquid Crystal 130
5.3.1.1 Tribological Properties of Lyotropic Liquid Crystal 131
5.3.1.2 Tribological Properties ofThermotropic Liquid Crystal 131
5.3.2 Deformation Analysis of Liquid Crystal Lubrication 132
5.3.3 Friction Mechanism of Liquid Crystal as a Lubricant Additive 136
5.3.3.1 Tribological Mechanism of 4–pentyl–4 –cyanobiphenyl 136
5.3.3.2 Tribological Mechanism of Cholesteryl Oleyl Carbonate 136
5.4 Electric Double Layer Effect inWater Lubrication 137
5.4.1 Electric Double Layer Hydrodynamic Lubrication Theory 138
5.4.1.1 Electric Double Layer Structure 138
5.4.1.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication Theory of Electric Double Layer 138
5.4.2 Influence of Electric Double Layer on Lubrication Properties 142
5.4.2.1 Pressure Distribution 142
5.4.2.2 Load–Carrying Capacity 143
5.4.2.3 Friction Coefficient 144
5.4.2.4 An Example 144
References 145
6 Lubrication Transformation and Nanoscale Thin Film Lubrication 147
6.1 Transformations of Lubrication States 147
6.1.1 Thickness–Roughness Ratio 147
6.1.2 Transformation from Hydrodynamic Lubrication to EHL 148
6.1.3 Transformation from EHL to Thin Film Lubrication 149
6.2 Thin Film Lubrication 152
6.2.1 Phenomenon ofThin Film Lubrication 153
6.2.2 Time Effect of Thin Film Lubrication 154
6.2.3 Shear Strain Rate Effect onThin Film Lubrication 157
6.3 Analysis ofThin Film Lubrication 158
6.3.1 Difficulties in Numerical Analysis of Thin Film Lubrication 158
6.3.2 Tichy s Thin Film Lubrication Models 160
6.3.2.1 Direction Factor Model 160
6.3.2.2 Surface Layer Model 161
6.3.2.3 Porous Surface Layer Model 161
6.4 Nano–Gas Film Lubrication 161
6.4.1 Rarefied Gas Effect 162
6.4.2 Boundary Slip 163
6.4.2.1 Slip Flow 163
6.4.2.2 Slip Models 163
6.4.2.3 Boltzmann Equation for Rarefied Gas Lubrication 165
6.4.3 Reynolds Equation Considering the Rarefied Gas Effect 165
6.4.4 Calculation of Magnetic Head/Disk of UltraThin Gas Lubrication 166
6.4.4.1 Large Bearing Number Problem 167
6.4.4.2 Sudden Step Change Problem 167
6.4.4.3 Solution of Ultra–Thin Gas Lubrication of Multi–Track Magnetic Heads 167
References 169
7 Boundary Lubrication and Additives 171
7.1 Types of Boundary Lubrication 171
7.1.1 Stribeck Curve 171
7.1.2 Adsorption Films and Their Lubrication Mechanisms 172
7.1.2.1 Adsorption Phenomena and Adsorption Films 172
7.1.2.2 Structure and Property of Adsorption Films 174
7.1.3 Chemical Reaction Film and its Lubrication Mechanism 177
7.1.3.1 Additives of Chemical Reaction Film 178
7.1.3.2 Notes for Applications of Extreme Pressure Additives 178
7.1.4 Other Boundary Films and their Lubrication Mechanisms 179
7.1.4.1 High Viscosity Thick Film 179
7.1.4.2 Polishing Thin Film 179
7.1.4.3 Surface Softening Effect 179
7.2 Theory of Boundary Lubrication 179
7.2.1 Boundary Lubrication Model 179
7.2.2 Factors Influencing Performance of Boundary Films 181
7.2.2.1 Internal Pressure Caused by Surface Tension 181
7.2.2.2 Adsorption Heat of Boundary Film 182
7.2.2.3 Critical Temperature 183
7.2.3 Strength of Boundary Film 184
7.3 Lubricant Additives 185
7.3.1 Oily Additives 185
7.3.2 Tackifier 186
7.3.3 Extreme Pressure Additives (EP Additives) 187
7.3.4 Anti–Wear Additives 187
7.3.5 Other Additives 187
References 189
8 Lubrication Failure and Mixed Lubrication 190
8.1 Roughness and Viscoelastic Material Effects on Lubrication 190
8.1.1 Modifications of Micro–EHL 190
8.1.2 Viscoelastic Model 191
8.1.3 LubricatedWear 192
8.1.3.1 LubricatedWear Criteria 193
8.1.3.2 LubricatedWear Model 193
8.1.3.3 LubricatedWear Example 193
8.2 Influence of Limit Shear Stress on Lubrication Failure 195
8.2.1 Visco–Plastic Constitutive Equation 195
8.2.2 Slip of Fluid Solid Interface 196
8.2.3 Influence of Slip on Lubrication Properties 196
8.3 Influence of Temperature on Lubrication Failure 200
8.3.1 Mechanism of Lubrication Failure Caused by Temperature 200
8.3.2 Thermal Fluid Constitutive Equation 201
8.3.3 Analysis of Lubrication Failure 202
8.4 Mixed Lubrication 203
References 207
Part II Friction andWear 209
9 Surface Topography and Contact 211
9.1 Parameters of Surface Topography 211
9.1.1 ArithmeticMean Deviation Ra 211
9.1.2 Root–Mean–Square Deviation (RMS) or Rq 211
9.1.3 Maximum Height Rmax 212
9.1.4 Load–Carrying Area Curve 212
9.1.5 ArithmeticMean Interception Length of Centerline Sma 212
9.1.5.1 Slope z a or z q 213
9.1.5.2 Peak Curvature Ca or Cq 213
9.2 Statistical Parameters of Surface Topography 213
9.2.1 Height Distribution Function 214
9.2.2 Deviation of Distribution 215
9.2.3 Autocorrelation Function of Surface Profile 216
9.3 Structures and Properties of Surface 217
9.4 Rough Surface Contact 219
9.4.1 Single Peak Contact 219
9.4.2 Ideal Roughness Contact 220
9.4.3 Random Roughness Contact 221
9.4.4 Plasticity Index 223
References 223
10 Sliding Friction and its Applications 225
10.1 Basic Characteristics of Friction 225
10.1.1 Influence of Stationary Contact Time 226
10.1.2 Jerking Motion 226
10.1.3 Pre–Displacement 227
10.2 Macro–FrictionTheory 228
10.2.1 Mechanical EngagementTheory 228
10.2.2 Molecular Action Theory 229
10.2.3 Adhesive FrictionTheory 229
10.2.3.1 Main Points of Adhesive Friction Theory 230
10.2.3.2 Revised Adhesion Friction Theory 232
10.2.4 Plowing Effect 233
10.2.5 Deformation Energy Friction Theory 235
10.2.6 Binomial FrictionTheory 236
10.3 Micro–FrictionTheory 238
10.3.1 Cobblestone Model 238
10.3.2 Oscillator Models 240
10.3.2.1 Independent Oscillator Model 240
10.3.2.2 Composite Oscillator Model 241
10.3.2.3 FK Model 242
10.3.3 Phonon Friction Model 242
10.4 Sliding Friction 243
10.4.1 Influence of Load 243
10.4.2 Influence of Sliding Velocity 244
10.4.3 Influence of Temperature 245
10.4.4 Influence of Surface Film 245
10.5 Other Friction Problems and Friction Control 246
10.5.1 Friction in SpecialWorking Conditions 246
10.5.1.1 High Velocity Friction 246
10.5.1.2 High Temperature Friction 246
10.5.1.3 Low Temperature Friction 247
10.5.1.4 Vacuum Friction 247
10.5.2 Friction Control 247
10.5.2.1 Method of Applying Voltage 247
10.5.2.2 Effectiveness of Electronic Friction Control 248
10.5.2.3 Real–Time Friction Control 249
References 250
11 Rolling Friction and its Applications 252
11.1 Basic Theories of Rolling Friction 252
11.1.1 Rolling Resistance Coefficient 252
11.1.2 Rolling Friction Theories 254
11.1.2.1 HysteresisTheory 255
11.1.2.2 Plastic DeformationTheory 256
11.1.2.3 Micro Slip Theory 257
11.1.3 Adhesion Effect on Rolling Friction 258
11.1.4 Factors Influencing Rolling Friction of Wheel and Rail 260
11.1.5 Thermal Analysis ofWheel and Rail 262
11.1.5.1 Heat Transferring Model ofWheel and Rail Contact 262
11.1.5.2 Temperature Rise Analysis of Wheel and Rail Contact 264
11.1.5.3 Transient Temperature Rise Analysis ofWheel for Two–DimensionalThermal
Shock 268
11.1.5.4 Three–Dimensional Transient Analysis of Temperature Rise of Contact 269
11.1.5.5 Thermal Solution for the Rail 270
11.2 Applications of Rolling Tribology in Design of Lunar Rover 271
11.2.1 Foundations of Force Analysis for Rigid Wheel 271
11.2.1.1 Resistant Force of Driving RigidWheel 271
11.2.1.2 Driving Force and Sliding/Rolling Ratio of the Wheel 274
11.2.2 Mechanics Model of a Wheel on a Soft Surface 275
11.2.2.1 Wheel Sinkage 276
11.2.2.2 Soil Deformation and Stress Model 276
11.2.2.3 Interaction Force between Wheel and Soil 277
11.2.3 Dynamic Analysis of Rolling Mechanics of Lunar Rover with Unequal Diameter
Wheel 278
11.2.3.1 Structure with Unequal DiameterWheel 278
11.2.3.2 Interaction model of wheel and soil 278
11.2.3.3 Model and Calculation of Movement for Unequal Diameter Wheel 280
References 280
12 Characteristics andMechanisms of Wear 282
12.1 Classification ofWear 282
12.1.1 Wear Categories 282
12.1.1.1 MechanicalWear 282
12.1.1.2 Molecular and MechanicalWear 283
12.1.1.3 Corrosive and MechanicalWear 283
12.1.2 Wear Process 283
12.1.2.1 Surface Interaction 283
12.1.2.2 Variation of Surface 283
12.1.2.3 Forms of Surface Damage 284
12.1.3 Conversion ofWear 285
12.2 AbrasiveWear 285
12.2.1 Types of AbrasiveWear 285
12.2.2 Factors Influencing AbrasiveWear 286
12.2.3 Mechanism of AbrasiveWear 289
12.3 AdhesiveWear 290
12.3.1 Types of AdhesiveWear 291
12.3.1.1 Light AdhesiveWear 291
12.3.1.2 Common AdhesiveWear 291
12.3.1.3 Scratch 291
12.3.1.4 Scuffing 291
12.3.2 Factors Influencing AdhesiveWear 291
12.3.2.1 Load 291
12.3.2.2 Surface Temperature 292
12.3.2.3 Materials 293
12.3.3 AdhesiveWear Mechanism 294
12.3.4 Criteria of Scuffing 296
12.3.4.1 p0Us c Criterion 296
12.3.4.2 WUns c 296
12.3.4.3 Instantaneous Temperature Criterion 297
12.3.4.4 Scuffing Factor Criterion 298
12.4 FatigueWear 298
12.4.1 Types of FatigueWear 298
12.4.1.1 Superficial FatigueWear and Surface FatigueWear 298
12.4.1.2 Pitting and Peeling 299
12.4.2 Factors Influencing FatigueWear 300
12.4.2.1 Load Property 300
12.4.2.2 Material Property 302
12.4.2.3 Physical and Chemical Effects of the Lubricant 302
12.4.3 Criteria of Fatigue Strength and Fatigue Life 303
12.4.3.1 Contact Stress State 303
12.4.3.2 Contact Fatigue Strength Criteria 304
12.4.3.3 Contact Fatigue Life 306
12.5 CorrosiveWear 307
12.5.1 OxidationWear 307
12.5.2 Special CorrosiveWear 309
12.5.2.1 Factors Influencing the CorrosionWear 309
12.5.2.2 Chemical–Mechanical Polishing 309
12.5.3 Fretting 309
12.5.4 Cavitation Erosion 310
References 312
13 Macro–Wear Theory 314
13.1 Friction Material 315
13.1.1 Friction Material Properties 315
13.1.1.1 Mechanical Properties 315
13.1.1.2 Anti–Friction andWear–Resistance 315
13.1.1.3 Thermal Property 316
13.1.1.4 Lubrication Ability 316
13.1.2 Wear–Resistant Mechanism 316
13.1.2.1 Hard Phase Bearing Mechanism 316
13.1.2.2 Soft Phase Bearing Mechanism 316
13.1.2.3 Porous Saving Oil Mechanism 316
13.1.2.4 Plastic Coating Mechanism 317
13.2 Wear Process Curve 317
13.2.1 Types ofWear Process Curves 317
13.2.2 Running–In 317
13.2.2.1 Working Life 318
13.2.2.2 Measures to Improve the Running–in Performance 319
13.3 Surface Quality andWear 320
13.3.1 Influence of Geometric Quality 321
13.3.2 Physical Quality 323
13.4 Theory of AdhesionWear 324
13.5 Theory of EnergyWear 325
13.6 DelaminationWearTheory and FatigueWear Theory 327
13.6.1 DelaminationWearTheory 327
13.6.2 FatigueWear Theory 329
13.7 Wear Calculation 329
13.7.1 IBMWear Calculation Method 329
13.7.1.1 Type A 330
13.7.1.2 Type B 331
13.7.2 Calculation Method of CombinedWear 331
References 335
14 Anti–Wear Design and Surface Coating 337
14.1 Selection of Lubricant and Additive 337
14.1.1 Lubricant Selection 337
14.1.1.1 Viscosity, Viscosity Index and Viscosity–Pressure Coefficient 339
14.1.1.2 Stability 339
14.1.1.3 Other Requirements 339
14.1.2 Grease Selection 340
14.1.2.1 The Composition of Grease 340
14.1.2.2 Function of Densifier 340
14.1.2.3 Grease Additives 340
14.1.3 Solid Lubricants 341
14.1.4 Seal and Filter 341
14.2 Matching Principles of Friction Materials 343
14.2.1 MaterialMating for AbrasiveWear 343
14.2.2 MaterialMating for AdhesiveWear 344
14.2.3 MaterialMating for Contact FatigueWear 345
14.2.4 Material Mating for FrettingWear 345
14.2.5 MaterialMating for CorrosionWear 345
14.2.6 Surface Hardening 346
14.3 Surface Coating 346
14.3.1 Common PlatingMethods 347
14.3.1.1 BeadWelding 347
14.3.1.2 Thermal Spraying 348
14.3.1.3 Slurry Coating 349
14.3.1.4 Electric Brush Plating 350
14.3.1.5 Plating 350
14.3.2 Design of Surface Coating 354
14.3.2.1 General Principles of Coating Design 354
14.3.2.2 Selection of Surface PlatingMethod 354
14.4 Coating Performance Testing 355
14.4.1 Appearance and Structure 355
14.4.1.1 Coating Appearance 355
14.4.1.2 Measurement of CoatingThickness 355
14.4.1.3 Determination of Coating Porosity 355
14.4.2 Bond Strength Test 356
14.4.2.1 Drop Hammer Impact Test 356
14.4.2.2 Vibrator Impact Test 356
14.4.2.3 Scratch Test 357
14.4.2.4 Broken Test 357
14.4.2.5 Tensile Bond Strength Test 357
14.4.2.6 Shear Bond Strength Test 357
14.4.2.7 Measurement of Internal Bond Strength of Coating 358
14.4.3 Hardness Test 360
14.4.3.1 Micro–Hardness (Hm) Testing 360
14.4.3.2 Hoffman Scratch Hardness Testing 360
14.4.4 Wear Test 360
14.4.5 Tests of Other Performances 361
14.4.5.1 Fatigue Test 361
14.4.5.2 Measurement of Residual Stress 361
References 362
15 Tribological Experiments 363
15.1 Tribological ExperimentalMethod and Devices 363
15.1.1 ExperimentalMethods 363
15.1.1.1 Laboratory Specimen Test 363
15.1.1.2 Simulation Test 363
15.1.1.3 Actual Test 363
15.1.2 Commonly Used Friction andWear Testing Machines 364
15.1.3 EHL andThin Film Lubrication Test 365
15.1.3.1 EHL andThin Film Lubrication Test Machine 365
15.1.3.2 Principle of Relative Light Intensity 366
15.2 Measurement ofWear Capacity 368
15.2.1 Weighing Method 368
15.2.2 Length Measurement Method 368
15.2.3 Profile Method 368
15.2.4 IndentationMethod 369
15.2.5 Grooving Method 371
15.2.6 PrecipitationMethod and Chemical AnalysisMethod 372
15.2.7 Radioactive Method 373
15.3 Analysis of Friction Surface Morphology 373
15.3.1 Analysis of Surface Topography 373
15.3.2 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) 374
15.3.3 Surface Structure Analysis 375
15.3.4 Surface Chemical Composition Analysis 377
15.3.4.1 Energy Spectrum Analysis 377
15.3.4.2 Electron Probe Micro–Analysis (EPMA) 377
15.4 Wear State Detection 378
15.4.1 Ferrography Analysis 378
15.4.2 Spectral Analysis 379
15.4.3 Lubricant Composition Analysis 380
15.4.4 Mechanical Vibration and Noise Analysis 380
15.4.5 Lubrication State Analysis 380
15.5 Wear Failure Analysis 380
15.5.1 Site Investigation 380
15.5.2 Lubricant and its Supply System 381
15.5.3 Worn Part Analysis 381
15.5.4 Design and Operation 381
References 383
Part III Applied Tribology 385
16 Micro–Tribology 387
16.1 Micro–Friction 387
16.1.1 Macro–Friction and Micro–Friction 387
16.1.2 Micro–Friction and Surface Topography 388
16.1.3 Plowing Effect and Adhesion Effect 391
16.1.3.1 Plowing Effect 391
16.1.3.2 Adhesion Effect 391
16.2 Micro–Contact and Micro–Adhesion 393
16.2.1 Solid Micro–Contact 393
16.2.1.1 Zero Load Contact 393
16.2.1.2 Elastic, Elastic–Plastic and Plastic Contacts 393
16.2.2 Solid Adhesion and Surface Force 394
16.2.2.1 Solid Adhesion Phenomena 394
16.2.2.2 Adhesion and Surface Force 395
16.3 Micro–Wear 396
16.3.1 Micro–Wear Experiment 396
16.3.2 Micro–Wear of Magnetic Head and Disk 398
16.4 Molecular Film and Boundary Lubrication 401
16.4.1 Static Shear Property of Molecular Layer 401
16.4.2 Dynamic Shear Property of Monolayer and Stick–Slip Phenomenon 402
16.4.3 Physical State and Phase Change 404
16.4.4 Temperature Effect and Friction Mechanism 405
16.4.5 Rheological Property of Molecular Film 406
16.4.6 Organized Molecular Film 408
16.4.6.1 LB Film 408
16.4.6.2 Self–Assembled Monolayer 409
References 410
17 Metal Forming Tribology 412
17.1 Mechanics Basis of Metal Forming 412
17.1.1 Yield Criterion 412
17.1.2 Friction Coefficient and Shear Factor 413
17.1.2.1 Friction Coefficient and Interface Adhesion 413
17.1.2.2 Shear Factor 414
17.1.3 Influence of Friction on Metal Forming 414
17.1.3.1 Influence of Friction on Deformation Force 415
17.1.3.2 Non–Uniform Deformation 415
17.2 Forging Tribology 416
17.2.1 Upsetting Friction 416
17.2.1.1 Cylinder Upsetting 416
17.2.1.2 Ring Upsetting 417
17.2.2 Friction of Open Die Forging 418
17.2.3 Friction of Closed–Die Forging 418
17.2.4 Lubrication andWear 418
17.3 Drawing Tribology 421
17.3.1 Friction and Temperature 421
17.3.2 Lubrication 422
17.3.2.1 Establishment of Hydrodynamic Lubrication 423
17.3.2.2 Hydrodynamic Lubrication Calculation of Drawing 424
17.3.3 Wear of Drawing Die 424
17.3.3.1 Wear of Die Shape 424
17.3.3.2 Wear Mechanism 425
17.3.3.3 Measures to ReduceWear 425
17.3.4 Anti–Friction of Ultrasound in Drawing 427
17.4 Rolling Tribology 429
17.4.1 Friction in Rolling 429
17.4.1.1 Pressure Distribution and Frictional Force 429
17.4.1.2 Friction Coefficient of Rolling 430
17.4.2 Lubrication in Rolling 432
17.4.2.1 Full Film Lubrication 432
17.4.2.2 Mixed Lubrication 432
17.4.3 RollerWear 434
17.4.4 Emulsion Lubricity in Rolling 434
References 435
18 Bio–Tribology 437
18.1 Mechanics Basis for Soft Biological Tissue 437
18.1.1 Rheological Properties of Soft Tissue 437
18.1.2 Stress Strain Curve Analysis 437
18.1.3 Anisotropy Relationships 439
18.2 Characteristics of Joint Lubricating Fluid 440
18.2.1 Joint Lubricating Fluid 440
18.2.2 Lubrication Characteristics of Joint Fluid 441
18.3 Lubrication of Human and Animal Joints 443
18.3.1 Performance of Human Joint 444
18.3.2 Joint Lubricating Fluid 445
18.3.3 Lubrication Mechanism of Joint 446
18.4 Friction andWear of Artificial Joint 447
18.4.1 Friction andWear Test 447
18.4.2 Wear of Artificial Joint 448
18.4.2.1 ExperimentalMethod and Apparatus 449
18.4.2.2 Test Results 449
18.5 Other Bio–Tribological Studies 451
Referencess 452
19 Space Tribology 453
19.1 Features of Space Agency and Space Tribology 453
19.1.1 Working Conditions in Space 453
19.1.2 Features of Space Tribology Problems 455
19.2 Analysis of Performances of Space Tribology 456
19.2.1 Starved Lubrication 456
19.2.2 Parched Lubrication 456
19.2.3 Volatility Analysis 458
19.2.4 Creeping 460
19.3 Space Lubricating Properties 462
19.3.1 EHL Characteristics of Space Lubricant 462
19.3.2 Space Lubrication of Rolling Contact Bearing 463
19.3.2.1 Bearing Coating 463
19.3.2.2 Lubricant Film Transfer Technology 464
19.3.2.3 Cage Instability 464
References 465
20 Tribology of Micro Electromechanical System 466
20.1 Introduction 466
20.2 Tribological Analysis Technique for MEMS 467
20.2.1 Measurement of Micro/Nano–Frictional Force 467
20.2.2 Stick–Slip Phenomenon 470
20.2.3 Measurement of Micro Adhesive Force 473
20.2.4 Factors Influencing Surface Analysis 473
20.2.4.1 Normal Load 473
20.2.4.2 Temperature 478
20.2.4.3 Sliding Velocity 483
20.3 Tribological Study of a Micro Motor 484
20.3.1 Lubrication of Micro Motor 486
20.3.2 Measurement of Frictional Force 487
20.3.3 Influence Factors 488
20.3.3.1 Intermittent Time 488
20.3.3.2 Humidity 489
20.3.3.3 Hydrodynamic Film and Boundary Film 490
20.4 Wear Analysis of MEMS 491
20.4.1 Mechanism of MicroWear 492
20.4.2 MicroWear of Monocrystalline Silicon 494
20.4.3 MicroWear of Nickel Titanium Shape Memory Alloy 496
20.4.3.1 Indentation 497
20.4.3.2 Temperature 499
20.4.4 Analysis of Surface Bulging 501
20.4.4.1 Bulging Phenomenon 502
20.4.4.2 Mechanism of Bulging 504
References 507
21 Ecological Tribology 509
21.1 Zero Friction and Superlubrication 509
21.1.1 Phenomenon of Superlubrication 509
21.1.2 Mechanisms of Superlubrication 510
21.1.2.1 Superfluidity 510
21.1.2.2 Superlubrication for Special Surface Pair and in a Special Direction 511
21.1.2.3 Superdynamic Friction 512
21.1.2.4 Molecular Polymer Film 513
21.1.3 Discussion of Superlubrication 514
21.1.3.1 Molecular Organization 514
21.1.3.2 Types of Molecular Films 514
21.1.3.3 Influence of External Field 515
21.2 Green Lubricant 516
21.2.1 Introduction of Green Lubricants 517
21.2.1.1 Harmfulness of petroleum products 517
21.2.1.2 Harmfulness ofWaste Oil 517
21.2.1.3 Harmfulness ofWaste Gas 517
21.2.1.4 Green Basis Oils, Lubricating Oil and Additives 517
21.2.2 Development of Green Lubricating Oil for Refrigeration 518
21.2.3 Application Tests 520
21.2.3.1 Application Test of Polyether Oil GE–30T 520
21.2.3.2 Application Test GT–50T 521
21.2.4 Biodegradation Test 521
21.3 Friction–Induced Noise and Control 523
21.3.1 Stick–Slip Model 523
21.3.2 Friction–Induced Noise of Wheel–Rail 524
21.3.3 Friction–Induced Noise of Rolling Contact Bearing 526
21.3.3.1 Sources of Noise 526
21.3.3.2 Influence Factors of Noise 527
21.4 Remanufacturing and Self–Repairing 528
21.4.1 Remanufacturing 529
21.4.1.1 Laser Remanufacturing Technology 529
21.4.1.2 Electric Brush Plating Technology 530
21.4.1.3 Nano Brush Plating Technology 530
21.4.1.4 Supersonic Spray Coating Technology 530
21.4.2 Self–Repairing 531
21.4.2.1 Spreading Film 531
21.4.2.2 Eutectic Film 531
References 532
Index 535
SHIZHU WEN, Tsinghua University, China
PING HUANG, South China University of Technology, China
Updated to include the timely and important topics of MEMS and rolling friction, Principles of Tribology is a compilation of current developments from tribology research, coupled with tribology fundamentals and applications. Essential topics include lubrication theory, lubrication design, friction mechanism, wear mechanism, friction control, and their applications. Besides classical tribology content, the book also covers intersecting research areas of tribology, as well as the regularities and characteristics of the tribological phenomena in practice. Furthermore, it presents the basic theory, numerical analysis methods and experimental measuring techniques of tribology as well as their application in engineering.
- Newly expanded and updated to include new tribological material on MEMS and green tribology, its key concepts and applications
- Systematically brings the reader through fundamental theories, basic mechanisms through to the latest research
- Emphasizes practical tribological phenomena, supported by numerical analysis and experimental measurement techniques
- Discusses nano–tribology, thin film lubrication and its applications, topics which are growing in importance
A comprehensive look at the fundamentals and latest research, this second edition of Principles of Tribology is an essential textbook for graduate and senior undergraduate students specializing in tribology and related mechanical engineering fields.
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