Principles of Lithography

ISBN-13: 9781510627604 / Angielski

Harry J. Levinson

Opis

This newest edition of Principles of Lithography reflects the continuing advancement of lithographic technology. In recent years, certain topics, such as line-edge roughness (LER), multi-electron-beam writers, and nonlinear overlay models, have become much more significant to practicing lithographers, and more extensive treatments are therefore provided. EUV lithography is on the threshold for use in high-volume manufacturing, at nodes where a number of complex phenomena are relevant, and the chapter on EUV lithography has been expanded accordingly. New references and homework problems have been added. It is expected that the reader of this book will have a foundation in basic physics and chemistry. No topics will require knowledge of mathematics beyond elementary calculus.

Spis treści

• Chapter 1 Overview of Lithography
• Problems
• Chapter 2 Optical Pattern Formation
• 2.1 The Problem of Imaging
• 2.2 Aerial Images
• 2.3 The Contributions of Physics and Chemistry
• 2.4 Focus
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 3 Photoresists
• 3.1 Positive and Negative Resists
• 3.2 Adhesion Promotion
• 3.3 Resist Spin Coating, Softbake, and Hardbake
• 3.4 Photochemistry of Novolak/DNQ g- and i-line Resists
• 3.5 Acid-Catalyzed DUV Resists
• 3.6 Development and Post-Exposure Bakes
• 3.7 Operational Characterization
• 3.8 Line-Edge Roughness
• 3.9 Multilayer Resist Processes
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 4 Modeling and Thin-Film Effects
• 4.1 Models of Optical Imaging
• 4.2 Aberrations
• 4.3 Modeling Photochemical Reactions
• 4.4 Thin-Film Optical Effects
• 4.5 Post-Exposure Bakes
• 4.6 Methods for Addressing the Problems of Reflective Substrates
• 4.7 Development
• 4.8 Quantum Effects and Modeling
• 4.9 Summary of Modeling
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 5 Wafer Steppers and Scanners
• 5.1 Overview
• 5.2 Light Sources
• 5.3 Illumination Systems
• 5.4 Reduction Lenses
• 5.5 Autofocus Systems
• 5.6 The Wafer Stage
• 5.7 Scanning
• 5.8 Dual-Stage Exposure Tools
• 5.9 Lithography Exposure Tools before Steppers
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 6 Overlay
• 6.1 Alignment Systems
• 6.1.1 Classification of alignment systems
• 6.1.2 Optical methods for alignment and wafer-to-reticle referencing
• 6.1.3 Number of alignment marks
• 6.2 Overlay Models
• 6.3 Matching
• 6.4 Process-Dependent Overlay Effects
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 7 Masks and Reticles
• 7.1 Overview
• 7.2 Mask Blanks
• 7.3 Mechanical Optical-Pattern Generators
• 7.4 Electron-Beam Lithography and Single-Beam Mask Writers
• 7.5 Multi-Electron-Beam Mask Writers
• 7.6 Optical Mask Writers
• 7.7 Resists for Mask Making
• 7.8 Etching
• 7.9 Pellicles
• 7.10 Mask-Defect Inspection and Repair
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 8 Confronting the Diffraction Limit
• 8.1 Off-Axis Illumination
• 8.2 Optical Proximity Effects
• 8.3 The Mask-Error Enhancement Factor (MEEF)
• 8.4 Phase-Shifting Masks
• 8.5 Putting It All Together
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 9 Metrology
• 9.1 Linewidth Measurement
• 9.1.1 Linewidth measurement using scanning electron microscopes
• 9.1.2 Scatterometry
• 9.1.3 Electrical linewidth measurement
• 9.2 Measurement of Overlay
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 10 Immersion Lithography and the Limits of Optical Lithography
• 10.1 Immersion Lithography
• 10.2 The Diffraction Limit
• 10.3 Improvements in Optics
• 10.4 Maximum Numerical Aperture
• 10.5 The Shortest Wavelength
• 10.6 Improved Photoresists
• 10.7 Flatter Wafers
• 10.8 How Low Can k1 Go?
• 10.9 How Far Can Optical Lithography Be Extended?
• 10.10 Multiple Patterning
• 10.11 Interferometric Lithography
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 11 Lithography Costs
• 11.1 Cost-of-Ownership
• 11.1.1 Capital costs
• 11.1.2 Consumables
• 11.1.3 Mask costs
• 11.1.4 Rework
• 11.1.5 Metrology
• 11.1.6 Maintenance costs
• 11.1.7 Labor costs
• 11.1.8 Facilities costs
• 11.2 Mix-and-Match Strategies
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 12 Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography
• 12.1 Background and Multilayer Reflectors
• 12.2 EUV Lithography System Overview
• 12.3 EUV Masks
• 12.4 Sources and Illuminators
• 12.5 EUV Optics
• 12.6 EUV Resists
• Problems
• References
• Chapter 13 Alternative Lithography Techniques
• 13.1 Proximity X-ray Lithography
• 13.2 Electron-Beam Direct-Write Lithography
• 13.2.1 Single-beam direct-write systems
• 13.2.2 Multiple-electron-beam direct-write systems
• 13.2.3 Cell-projection lithography
• 13.2.4 Scattering-mask electron-projection lithography
• 13.3 Ion-Projection Lithography
• 13.4 Imprint Lithography
• 13.5 Directed Self-Assembly
• Problems
• References
• Appendix A Coherence
• Problems
• References