Precision Measurement of Microwave Thermal Noise

ISBN-13: 9781119910091 / Angielski / Twarda / 2022 / 200 str.

James Randa

Spis treści

Preface xi1 Background 11.1 Nyquist's Theorem and Noise Temperature 11.1.1 Nyquist's Theorem 11.1.2 Limits and Numbers 21.1.3 Definition of Noise Temperature 41.1.4 Excess Noise Ratio and T 0 51.2 Microwave Networks 51.2.1 Notation 51.2.2 Noise Correlation Matrix and Bosma's Theorem 61.2.3 Power Ratios 71.2.4 Noise-Temperature Translation Through a Passive Device 9References 102 Noise-Temperature Standards 112.1 Introduction 112.2 Ambient Standards 122.3 Hot (Oven) Standards 132.4 Cryogenic Standards 132.4.1 Coaxial Standards 132.4.2 Waveguide Standards 152.5 Other Standards and Noise Sources 182.5.1 Tunable Primary Standards 182.5.2 "Equivalent Hot Standard" Based on RF Power 182.5.3 Secondary Standards 192.5.4 Synthetic Primary Standards 19References 203 Noise-Temperature Measurement 233.1 Background 233.2 Total-Power Radiometer 243.2.1 Idealized Case 243.2.2 Nonideal Case 253.2.3 Radiometer Equation for Isolated Total-Power Radiometer 273.2.4 Total-Power Radiometer Design 293.2.5 Radiometer Testing 323.3 Total-Power Radiometer Uncertainties 343.3.1 Type-A Uncertainties 343.3.2 Type-B Uncertainties 363.3.3 Sample Results 403.4 Other Radiometer Designs 403.4.1 Switching or Dicke Radiometer 403.4.2 Digital Radiometer 413.5 Measurements through Adapters 423.6 Traceability and Inter-laboratory Comparisons 43References 444 Amplifier Noise 474.1 Noise Figure, Effective Input Noise Temperature 474.2 Noise-Temperature Definition Revisited 484.3 Noise Figure Measurement, Simple Case 494.4 Definition of Noise Parameters 504.4.1 Circuit Treatment of Noisy Amplifier 504.4.2 Wave Representation of Noise Parameters 524.5 Measurement of Noise Parameters 554.5.1 General Measurement Setup 554.5.2 Fit to Noise-Figure Parameterization 594.5.3 Fit to Noise-Temperature or Power Parameterization 604.5.4 Possible Variations When Using the Wave Formulation 624.5.5 Choice of Input Terminations 634.5.6 Commercial Systems, Source-Pull Measurements 664.5.7 Frequency-Variation Method 664.6 Uncertainty Analysis for Noise-Parameter Measurements 674.6.1 Simple Considerations 674.6.2 Full Analysis 704.6.3 Input Uncertainties 724.6.4 General Features and Sample Results 744.7 Simulations and Strategies 77References 795 On-Wafer Noise Measurements 835.1 Introduction 835.2 On-Wafer Microwave Formalism 845.2.1 Traveling Waves vs. Pseudo Waves 845.2.2 On-Wafer Reference Planes 845.3 Noise-Temperature Measurements 855.4 On-Wafer Noise-Parameter Measurements 885.4.1 General 885.4.2 Radiometer-Based Systems 905.4.3 Commercial Systems and Reference-Plane Considerations 935.4.4 "Enhanced" or Model-Assisted Measurements 955.5 Uncertainties 1015.5.1 Differences from Packaged Amplifiers 1015.5.2 General Features and Properties 1035.5.3 Measurement Strategies 104References 1056 Noise-Parameter Checks and Verification 1096.1 Measurement of Passive or Previously Measured Devices 1096.2 Physical Bounds and Model Predictions 1116.3 Tandem or Hybrid Measurements 112References 1187 Cryogenic Amplifiers 1217.1 Background 1217.1.1 Introduction 1217.1.2 Vacuum-Fluctuation Contribution 1217.2 Measurement of the Matched Noise Figure 1237.2.1 Cold-Attenuator Method 1237.2.2 Internal Hot-Cold Method 1247.2.3 Full-Characterization Measurements 1257.3 Noise-Parameter Measurement 128References 1298 Multiport Amplifiers 1338.1 Introduction 1338.2 Formalism and Noise Matrix 1348.3 Definition of Noise Figure for Multiports 1368.4 Degradation of Signal-to-Noise Ratio 1388.5 Three-Port Example - Differential Amplifier with Reflectionless Terminations 1398.5.1 Motivation 1398.5.2 Characteristic Noise Temperature, Gains, and Effective Input Noise Temperature 1398.5.3 Noise Figure 1428.5.4 Practical Applications 1438.6 Four-Port Example with Reflectionless Terminations 143References 1459 Remote Sensing Connection 1479.1 Introduction 1479.2 Theory for Standard Radiometer 1499.3 Standard-Radiometer Measurements 1549.3.1 Determination of alpha 1549.3.2 Determination of Illumination Efficiency, eta IE 1549.3.2.1 Measurements of a Standard Target 1559.4 Standard-Target Design 1559.5 Target Reflectivity Effects 1569.5.1 Effect of Target Reflectivity 1569.5.2 Measurement of Target Reflectivity 157References 157Index 159

O autorze

James Randa received the Ph.D. degree in Theoretical Physics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA. After a series of postdoctoral and temporary faculty positions, he joined NIST, where he worked for about 25 years, leading the Noise Project for much of that time. Since his retirement he has continued to work on topics in noise on a part-time basis, as a contractor and/or a guest researcher at NIST. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE.