Power Flow Control Solutions for a Modern Grid Using Smart Power Flow Controllers

ISBN-13: 9781119824350 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 720 str.

Kalyan K. Sen; Mey Ling Sen

Spis treści

Authors' Biographies xiiiForeword xvNomenclature xixPreface xxvAcknowledgments xxixAbout the Companion Website xxxi1 Smart Controllers 11.1 Why is a Power Flow Controller Needed? 11.2 Traditional Power Flow Control Concepts 51.3 Modern Power Flow Control Concepts 141.4 Cost of a Solution 221.4.1 Defining a Cost-Effective Solution 221.4.2 Payback Time 241.4.3 Economic Analysis 241.5 Independent Active and Reactive PFCs 261.6 SMART Power Flow Controller (SPFC) 391.6.1 Example of an SPFC 401.6.2 Justification 411.6.3 Additional Information 411.7 Discussion 422 Power Flow Control Concepts 452.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or Uncompensated Line 602.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 632.2.1 Shunt-Compensating Voltage 672.2.1.1 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 702.2.1.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 732.2.1.3 Exchanged Power by a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 792.2.1.4 Representation of a Shunt-Compensating Voltage as a Shunt-Compensating Impedance 792.2.2 Series-Compensating Voltage as an Impedance Regulator, Voltage Regulator, and Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 802.2.2.1 Power Flow at the Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 922.2.2.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 952.2.2.3 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 1002.2.2.4 Exchanged Power by a Series-Compensating Voltage 1092.2.2.5 Additional Series-Compensating Voltages 1262.2.2.5.1 Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 1262.2.2.5.2 Reactance Regulator 1292.2.2.5.2.1 Reactance Control Method 1372.2.2.5.2.2 Voltage Control Method 1392.2.2.6 Representation of a Series-Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating Impedance 1452.2.2.6.1 Equivalent Impedance of a Voltage Regulator (VR) 1522.2.2.6.2 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 1542.2.2.6.3 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 1572.2.2.6.4 Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator 1602.2.3 Comparison Between Series- and Shunt-Compensating Voltages 1652.3 Implementation of Power Flow Control Concepts 1682.3.1 Voltage Regulation 1682.3.1.1 Direct Method 1682.3.1.2 Indirect Method 1702.3.2 Phase Angle Regulation 1732.3.2.1 Single-core Phase Angle Regulator 1732.3.2.2 Dual-core Phase Angle Regulator 1762.3.3 Series Reactance Regulation 1782.3.3.1 Direct Method 1782.3.3.2 Indirect Method 1782.3.4 Impedance Regulation 1792.3.4.1 Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) 1812.3.4.2 Sen Transformer (ST) 1832.4 Interline Power Flow Concept 1852.4.1 Back-to-Back SSSC 1862.4.2 Multiline Sen Transformer (MST) 1882.4.3 Back-to-Back STATCOM 1922.4.4 Generalized Power Flow Controller 1942.5 Figure of Merits Among Various PFCs 1962.5.1 VR 1962.5.2 PAR (sym) 1962.5.3 PAR (asym) 1982.5.4 RR 2022.5.5 IR 2042.5.6 RPI, LI, and APR of a PFC 2062.6 Comparison Between Shunt-Compensating Reactance and Series-Compensating Reactance 2282.6.1 Shunt-Compensating Reactance 2302.6.1.1 Restoration of Voltage at the Midpoint of the Line 2302.6.1.2 Restoration of Voltage at the One-Third and Two-Third Points of the Line 2322.6.1.3 Restoration of Voltage at the One-Fourth, Half, and Three-Fourth Points of the Line 2332.6.1.4 Restoration of Voltage at n Points of the Line 2352.6.2 Series-Compensating Reactance 2392.7 Calculation of RPI, LI, and APR for a PAR (sym), a PAR (asym), a RR, and an IR in a Lossy Line 2422.7.1 PAR (sym) 2452.7.2 PAR (asym) 2462.7.3 RR 2482.7.4 IR 2492.8 Sen Index of a PFC 2533 Modeling Principles 2553.1 The Modeling in EMTP 2553.1.1 A Single-Generator/Single-Line Model 2593.1.2 A Two-Generator/Single-Line Model 2643.2 Vector Phase-Locked Loop (VPLL) 2773.3 Transmission Line Steady-State Resistance Calculator 2803.4 Simulation of an Independent PFC, Integrated in a Two-Generator/Single-Line Power System Network 2814 Transformer-Based Power Flow Controllers 2974.1 Voltage-Regulating Transformer (VRT) 2974.1.1 Voltage Regulating Transformer (Shunt-Series Configuration) 2984.1.2 Two-Winding Transformer 3154.2 Phase Angle Regulator (PAR) 3224.2.1 PAR (Asymmetric) 3224.2.2 PAR (Symmetric) 3325 Mechanically-Switched Voltage Regulators and Power Flow Controllers 3415.1 Shunt Compensation 3415.1.1 Mechanically-Switched Capacitor (MSC) 3415.1.2 Mechanically-Switched Reactor (MSR) 3535.2 Series Compensation 3545.2.1 Mechanically-Switched Reactor (MSR) 3545.2.2 Mechanically-Switched Capacitor (MSC) with a Reactor 3635.2.3 Series Reactance Emulator 3696 Sen Transformer 3756.1 Existing Solutions 3776.1.1 Voltage Regulation 3836.1.2 Phase Angle Regulation 3856.2 Desired Solution 3866.2.1 ST as a New Voltage Regulator 3896.2.2 ST as an Independent PFC 3926.2.3 Control of ST 3946.2.3.1 Impedance Emulation 3956.2.3.2 Resistance Emulation 3966.2.3.3 Reactance Emulation 3966.2.3.4 Closed-Loop Power Flow Control 3976.2.3.5 Open-Loop Power Flow Control 3986.2.4 Simulation of ST Integrated in a Two-Generator/One-Line Power System Network 4256.2.5 Simulation of ST Integrated in a Three-Generator/Four-Line Power System Network 4396.2.6 Testing of ST 4536.2.7 Limited-Angle Operation of ST 4856.2.8 ST Using LTCs with Lower Current Rating 4986.2.9 ST with a Two-Core Design 5016.3 Comparison Among the VRT, PAR, UPFC, and ST 5106.3.1 Power Flow Enhancement 5106.3.2 Speed of Operation 5116.3.3 Losses 5126.3.4 Switch Rating 5126.3.5 Magnetic Circuit Design 5136.3.6 Optimization of Transformer Rating 5136.3.7 Harmonic Injection into the Power System Network 5156.3.8 Operation During Line Faults 5156.4 Multiline Sen Transformer 5166.4.1 Basic Differences Between the MST and BTB-SSSC 5196.5 Flexible Operation of the ST 5206.6 ST with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 5226.7 Limited Angle Operation of the ST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 5266.8 MST with Shunt-Compensating Voltages 5316.9 Generalized Sen Transformer 5326.10 Summary 533Appendix A Miscellaneous 535A.1 Three-Phase Balanced Voltage, Current, and Power 535A.2 Symmetrical Components 538A.3 Separation of Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence Components in a Multiple Frequency Composite Variable 544A.4 Three-Phase Unbalanced Voltage, Current, and Power 547A.5 d-q Transformation (3-Phase System, Transformed into d-q axes; d-axis Is the Active Component and q-axis Is the Reactive Component) 551A.5.1 Conversion of a Variable Containing Positive-, Negative-, and Zero-Sequence Components into d-q Frame 556A.5.2 Calculation of Instantaneous Power into d-q Frame 560A.5.3 Calculation of Instantaneous Power into d-q frame for a Three-Phase, Three-Wire System 560A.6 Fourier Analysis 566A.7 Adams-Bashforth Numerical Integration Formula 569Appendix B Power Flow Equations in a Lossy Line 571B.1 Power Flow Equations for a Natural or Uncompensated Line 575B.2 Power Flow Equations for a Compensated Line 582B.2.1 Shunt-Compensating Voltage 583B.2.1.1 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 584B.2.1.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 587B.2.1.3 Exchanged Power by a Shunt-Compensating Voltage 590B.2.1.4 Representation of a Shunt-Compensating Voltage as a Shunt-Compensating Impedance 590B.2.2 Series-Compensating Voltage as an Impedance Regulator, Voltage Regulator, and Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 591B.2.2.1 Power Flow at the Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 596B.2.2.2 Power Flow at the Receiving End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 600B.2.2.3 Power Flow at the Modified Sending End with a Series-Compensating Voltage 606B.2.2.4 Exchanged Power by a Series-Compensating Voltage 615B.2.2.5 Additional Series-Compensating Voltages 624B.2.2.5.1 Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 624B.2.2.5.2 Reactance Regulator 628B.2.2.6 Representation of a Series-Compensating Voltage as a Series-Compensating Impedance 631B.2.2.6.1 Equivalent Impedance of a Voltage Regulator (VR) 635B.2.2.6.2 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Asymmetric) 636B.2.2.6.3 Equivalent Impedance of a Phase Angle Regulator (Symmetric) 638B.2.2.6.4 Equivalent Impedance of a Reactance Regulator 640B.2.2.7 RPI, LI, and APR of a PFC 640B.3 Descriptions of the Examples in Chapter 2 644Appendix C Modeling of the Sen Transformer in PSS(r)E 647C.1 Sen Transformer 647C.2 Modeling with Two Transformers in Series 648C.3 Relating the Sen Transformer with the PSSE(r)E Model 649C.4 Chilean Case Study 650C.5 Limitations - PSS(r)E Two-Transformer Model 654C.6 Conclusion 655References 657Index 669

O autorze

Kalyan K. Sen, PhD, PE (PA & NY), MBA, IEEE Fellow, is President and Chief Technology Officer at Sen Engineering Solutions, Inc. He was a key member of the FACTS development team at Westinghouse Science & Technology Center, where he developed some of the basic concepts of FACTS technology. He is an IEEE Distinguished Lecturer, and is the co-author of Introduction to FACTS Controllers: Theory, Modeling, and Applications.Mey Ling Sen, MEE, IEEE Member, is Chief Operating Officer at Sen Engineering Solutions, Inc. Previously, she was a consultant engineer at the Westinghouse Electro-Mechanical Division Technology Center. Ms. Sen is the co-inventor of the Sen transformer, which is the most efficient, reliable, and cost-effective SMART power flow controller (SPFC).