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Physics and Technology for Engineers: Understanding Materials and Sustainability
ISBN-13: 9783031320835 / Angielski
Physics and Technology for Engineers: Understanding Materials and Sustainability
ISBN-13: 9783031320835 / Angielski
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Contents of
Chapter-1
Chapter-1 Engineering Materials, Atomic Structure
and Bounding
Objective
1.1
Classification of condensed
matter
1.1.1
Metals
(a ) Ductility
(b) Malleability
(c) Different types of metal strengths
(i)
Tensile strength
(ii)
Yield strength
(iii)
Compressive strength
(iv)
Impact strength
(v)
Shear strength
(vi)
Ultimate strength
(d) Lustre
(e) Electrical and thermal conductivities
(f)
High melting point of
metals
1.1.2
Ceramics
1.1.3
Polymers
(i)
Classification based on molecular
forces
(a) Elastomers
(b) Fibers
(c) Resins
(ii)
Classification based on heat
treatment
(d) Thermoplastic polymers
(e) Thermosetting polymers
(iii)
Classification based on source
(f) Natural Polymers
(g) Semi-synthetic polymers
(h) Synthetic polymers
(iv)
Classification based on structure
(i) Linear polymers
(j) Branched polymers
(k) Cross-linked polymers
(v)
Classification based on mode of
polymerization
(l) Addition polymers
(m) Condensation polymer
1.1.4
Composites
(a)
Polymer matrix composites
(b)
Metal matrix composites
(c)
Ceramic matrix composites (CMC)
1.2
Atomic structure
1.2.1 Elements of atomic
structure
1.2.2 Arrangement
of electrons in atom
(a)
Principal quantum number ‘n’
(b)
Azimuthal quantum number
(c)
Magnetic quantum number
(d)
The Magnetic spin quantum number
1.2.3 Shape and orientation of
orbitals
1.2.4 Electron energy level
diagram
1.2.5 Electron configuration
of elements
1.2.6 Aufbau
or building up Principle
RULE-1
RULE-2
RULE-3: Hund’s rule
1.2.7 Representing electron
configuration
(a) Orbital notation method
(b) Orbital diagram method
(c) Short hand form
1.2.8 Valence shell
1.2.9 Some anomalous electron configurations
1.3
Bonds between atoms and ions
1.3.1 Electronegativity
1.3.2 The Octet Rule
1.3.3 Classification of bonding
(A) Primary
atomic bonds
(i) Ionic
or electrovalent bond
(i)
Covalent bond
Bond parameters
(a) Bond length
(b) Bond angle
(c) Band order
(d) Polarity of bond
(e) Bonding energy
(ii)
Metallic bond
(B) Secondary bonds
Electric dipole
(i)
Fluctuating dipole bond
(ii)
Permanent dipole bond
(iii)
Hydrogen (secondary) bond
Short answer questions
Multiple choice questions
Long answer questions
Contents of
chapter-2
Chapter-2 Electrical
behaviour of condensed matter
Objective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Electron
energy band theory
2.3 Insulator
2.4 Semiconductors
2.4.1 Intrinsic semiconductors
silicon
(a) The trichorosliane method
(b) Zone refining technique
(c) Poly crystal to monocrystal
(d) Monocrystal to wafers
(ii)
Fermi energy and Fermi level
2.4.2
Covalent band picture of
intrinsic semiconductor
2.4.3 Doped or extrinsic
semiconductors
2.4.4 Doping technology
(i) Ion
implantation technology
(ii) Diffusion technology
(iii)
Doping at monocrystal growth stage
2.4.5 n and p type semiconductors
(i) n-type semiconductor
(ii)
p-type semiconductor
2.4.6 Compensated semiconductor
2.4.7 Degenerate and non-degenerate
semiconductors
2.4.8 Direct and indirect semiconductor
2.4.9 Compound semiconductors
2.4.10 Current
flow in semiconductor
(i) Drift current
(ii) Diffusion current
2.4.11 Temperature
dependence of semiconductor resistivity
2.4.12 Theoretical
calculation of carrier concentration in a semiconductor
(i) Calculation of Fermi energy at T 0 K
2.4.13 Hall
effect
2.4.14 p-n junction
(i) Depletion layer
(ii) Biasing of p-n junction diode
(a) Forward bias
(b) Reverse bias
2.4.15 Some formulations
Solved examples
2.5 Conductors
2.5.1 Semi
metals and half metals
(i) Semi metal or metalloid
(ii) Half metal
Solved examples
2.6 Superconductor
2.6.1 Background
(i) Meissner effect
(ii) Magnetic field trapped in a
superconducting ring
(iii)
Superconductor
type-I and type-II
(iv)
Stable levitation
(v)
High Tc
superconductors
(vi)
Isotope effect
(vii)
Cooper pair
2.6.2
BCS theory of superconductivity
Problems
Short answer questions
Multiple choice questions
Long
answer questions
Contents of
Chapter -3
Chapter-3 Magnetic materials
Objective
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Electric current and magnetic field
3.3 Magnetic dipole moment
3.4 Magnetic moment of a charged particle
moving in a circular orbit
3.4.1 Classical to quantum
mechanics
3.5 Magnetic (dipole) moment of electron
(i)
Orbital motion of
electron
(ii)
Spin motion of
electron
(iii)
Magnetic moments of nuclear particles
3.6 Magnetic behaviour of solids
3.6.1 Magnetic induction B
and magnetic field H
3.7 Classification of magnetic materials
3.7.1 Diamagnetic materials
3.7.1.1 Langevin’s theory of
diamagnetism
3.7.2 Paramagnetic materials
3.7.2.1 Langevin’s theory for paramagnetism
3.7.3 Ferromagnetic materials
3.7.3.1 Weiss’s theory of ferromagnetism
(i)
Exchange
interactions
(ii)
Spin wave
(iii)
Saturation
magnetization Msat
(iv)
Magnetic anisotropy
(v)
Magnetic hysteresis in
ferromagnetic substances
3.7.4 Antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials
3.7.4.1 Ferrimagnetisms
3.8 Permanent magnetic
materials
Ferrite
Neodymium-iron-boron
compound
Magnetic
rubber
Solved example
PROBLEMS
SHORT
ANSWER QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE
CHOICE QUESTIONS
LONG
ANSWER QESTIONS
Contents
of chapter-4
Chapter-4
X-rays, Dual nature of Matter, Failure of Classical Physics and Success
of quantum approach
Objective
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4. 2 Discovery, production and
properties of X-rays
4.2.1
Production of X-rays
4.2.2 Continuous X-rays
4.2.3 Characteristic X-rays
4.2.4 Mosley’s law
4.2.5 X-ray diffraction
4.2.6
Some applications of X-rays
(i) Powder x-ray Diffraction (PXRD)
4.3 Dual nature of matter
4.3.1 Davisson and Germer experiment
(a) Velocity of de Broglie waves
(i)
Phase velocity
(ii) Group velocity
(b) What makes matter waves
4.4 Some examples
of the failure of classical approach and success of quantum approach
4.4.1 Stability of the atom and the nature of atomic
spectra
4.4.2 Photo electric effect
(a) Dependence of photoelectric current on frequency of
incident radiation
(b) Dependence of photoelectric current on the
intensity of incident radiation
photoelectric current on the potential difference across the two plates
(d) Dependence
of photoelectric current on the frequency of incident light and on the stopping
potential
(e) Dependence
of cut-off (threshold) frequency on the type of cathode surface
4.4.3 Quantum theory of photoelectric effect
4.4.4 Work function
4.4.5 Residual atom after the emission of photoelectron
4.5 Black body radiations and
their energy distribution
4.5.1 Wien’s displacement law
4.5.2 Failure of Wien’s
distribution law
4.5.3 Rayleigh and Jean’s
distribution law
4.5.4 Failure of Rayleigh Jeans
distribution
4.6 Quantum theory of
blackbody radiations
4.7 Compton scattering of
gamma rays
4.7.1 Compton
wavelength
4.7.2 Compton
scattering by the whole atom
4.7.3
Photon interactions with matter
4.7.4 Some applications of
Compton scattering
4.8 Specific heat of solids
4.8.1 Dulong Petit law
4.8.2 Obtaining Dulong Petit law on the basis of classical physics
4.9 Quantum approach to atomic
specific heat of solids
4.9.1 Einstein’s theory for specific heat of solids
4.9.2 Investigating the temperature dependence of Einstein’s equation
4.9.3 Drawbacks of Einstein’s model
4.9.4 Debye theory of atomic specific heat
4.9.5 Debye temperature
SOLVED
EXAMPLES
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
QUESTIONS
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
Contents of Chapter-5
Chapter-5
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Objective
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Postulates
of Quantum Mechanics
Postulate-1
5.2.1 What
does wave function represent?
5.2.2 Properties of the
acceptable wave function
5.3 Observables and operators
Postulate-2
5.4 Time evolution of a quantum mechanical
system
Postulate-3
5.4.1 Schrodinger time
dependent equation
5.4.2 Some properties of
Schrodinger equation
5.5 Time independent Schrodinger equation
5.6 About operators
5.6.1 Null operator
5.6.2 Unity or Identity
operator
5.6.3 Linear operator
5.6.4 Hermitian conjugate
and Hermitian operator
5.6.5 Anti hermitian
operator
5.6.6 Inverse Operator
5.6.7 Unitary operator
5.6.8 Some
properties of Hermitian operators
5.6.9 Algebra of operators
5.6.10 Operators for some
dynamical variables
Solved examples
5.7 Measurement of a dynamical variable in
quantum mechanics
Postulate-4
5.7.1 Expectation value of a dynamic variable
Solved examples
5.8 Some one- dimensional
problems
5.8.1 Energy states: Bound and Scattering states
5.8.2 Quantum mechanical description of a free particle
5.8.3 Particle in a one-dimensional asymmetric infinite potential
well
5.8.3.1 Eigen function for a particle in an
one-dimensional infinite box
5.8.3.2 Extension to two- dimensional and
three-dimensional infinite potentials
5.8.4 Potential barrier and
tunnelling
5.8.4.1 Boundary conditions
5.8.4.2
Transmission coefficient
5.8.4.3 Reflection
Coefficient
5.9
Heisenberg uncertainty principle
5.10 Correspondence
principle and Ehrenfest’s theorem
Solved examples
Problems
Short answer
questions
Multiple choice
questions
Long answer
questions
Contents
of Chapter-6Objective
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Application of quantum statistics
(statistical mechanics) to an assembly of non interacting particles
6.3 Energy
levels, energy states, degeneracy and occupation number
6.3.1 Distinguishable and indistinguishable
particles
6.3.2 Macrostate
6.3.3 Microstates
6.3.4 Time evolution of an assembly
6.3.5 Postulate of equal a prior probability of
all microstates
6.4 Quantum statistical probability of a
Macrostate
6.4.1 System properties and average occupation
number
6.5 The Bose-Einstein statistical
distribution
6.6 The Fermi-Dirac statistical distribution
6.7 The Maxwell-Boltzmann statistical
distribution
6.8 Relation between entropy and
thermodynamic probability
6.9 The distribution function
Solved examples
Problems
Short answer questions
Multiple
choice questions
Long answer
questions
Contents
of chapter-7
Optical
Fiber Communication
Objective
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Advantages of
optical fiber communication
7.3 Basics of
optical fiber communication
7.3.1 Optical fiber materials
7.3.2 Frequently used wavelengths in optical
transmission
7.3.3 Principle of total internal reflection
7.3.4 Types of fibers
(a) Single mode step-index fiber
(b) Multi mode step-index fiber
(c) Multimode graded-index fiber
7.3.5 Rays guided through fiber
7.3.6 Meridional and Skewed Rays
7.3.7 Acceptance angle
7.3.8 Numerical aperture (NA)
7.3.9
The V parameter
7.3.10 Attenuation and Dispersion
of optical signal
(A)
Attenuation
(i) Intrinsic causes of attenuation
(ii)
Extrinsic causes of attenuation
(B)
Dispersion
(i)
Matertial dispersion
(ii)
Modal dispersion
(iii)
Waveguide dispersion
(iv)
Nonlinear dispersion
7.4
Components of optical fiber network link
(i) Optical
transmitter
(ii) Optical connector
(iii)
Fiber cable
(iv) Optical receiver
7.5
Applications of optical fiber transmission
Solved
example
PROBLEMS
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS
LONG ANSWER QESTIONS
Contents of
chapter-8
Chapter-8 LASER TECHNOLOGY AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
Objective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Electromagnetic radiations
8.3 Interaction of electromagnetic
radiation with matter
(a) Absorption
(b) Spontaneous emission or de-excitation
(c) Radiationless
de-excitation
8.4 Einstein
prediction of stimulated emission
8.5 Stimulated (or
induced) emission of photons
8.5.1 Population inversion
8.5.2 Essential
requirements for laser action
8.5.3 Pumping
(a) Optical pumping
(b) Electric discharge or excitation by electrons
(c) Inelastic atom-atom collision
(d) Thermal pumping
(e)Chemical pumping
(f) Pumping based on direct
conversion of electrical energy into light
8.5.4
Three and four level
lasing schemes
8.5.5 Optical resonator or
laser cavity
(i)
Gain coefficient of the
active medium
(ii)
Threshold gain
coefficient for lasing
(iii)
Axial or longitudinal
modes
(iv)
Transverse modes
8.6 Special characteristics of laser light
(i)
Monocromaticity
(a)
Natural line width
(b)
Doppler broadening
(c)
Recoil broadening
(d)
Energy bands in solid
state lasers
(e)
Laser groups from a
system
(ii)
Coherence
(iii)
Directionality
(iv)
Irradiance
(v)
Focusability
8.7 Classification of laser
sources
(i)
According to the
physical state of the active medium
(ii)
According to the mode of
operation
(iii)
According to other
properties
8.7.1 Solid state
lasers
(i) Doped insulator rod type lasers
(a) Cr.ruby laser source
(b) Nd.YAG laser source
(ii) Solid state semiconductor
diode laser source
8.7.2 Dye (liquid) laser source
8.7.3 Gas
laser sources
(i) Atomic gas laser
(ii) Carbon Dioxide Molecular gas laser
(iii) Argon ion laser
8.7.4 Excimer Laser
8.7.5
Mode locking
8.7.6
Q- switching
8.8 Some
applications of Lasers
(a) Laser holography
(b) Writing and reading of
digital data on compact disc (CD) using laser beam
(c) Military/ defence/ armament
applications of laser
(d) Industrial and commercial
applications
(e) Medical applications
SOLVED
EXAMPLES
PROBLEMS
SHORT
ANSWER QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE
CHOICE QUESTIONS
LONG
ANSWER QESTIONS
Contents
of chapter 9
Nanomaterials
Objective
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Special features of nanomaterials
(i)
Large surface area
(ii)
Colour of light
emitted/absorbed depends on the size of the nano structure
(iii)
Enhancement in mechanical properties of nanomaterials
(iv)
Electronic properties of
nanomaterials
(v)
Thermal behaviour of
nanostructures
(vi)
Magnetic behaviour of
nanomaterials
9.3 Technology used for the study of
nanostructures
(a)
Scanning tunnelling microscope (STM)
(b)
Atomic force microscope (AFM)
(c) Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
(d) Optical tweezers (OT)
9.4 Techniques of producing nanostructures
9.4.1 Bottom-up techniques
(i) Gas phase methods
(a)
Chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
(b)
Plasma arcing
(ii) Liquid phase methods
(c) Sol-gel synthesis
(iii) Solid and Liquid phase methods
(d) Self-Assembly
9.4.2 Top down techniques
of fabricating nanostructures
(i) Mechanical
milling (MM)
(ii) Laser ablation
(iii) Nanolithography
and etching
(iv) Sputtering
(v) Electric explosion
of wire
9.5 Carbon
nanotubes
(i) Discovery
(ii) Characteristics of carbon nanotubes
(iii) Applications of carbon nanotubes
(a)
Electronics
(b)
Energy storage
(c)
Electron emitter
(d)
Material properties
(e)
Filters
(f)
Biomedical applications
(g)
Others
SHORT ANSWER
QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
QUESTIONS
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
Contents of chapter-10
Chapter-10 Sustainability
and Sustainable energy options
Objective
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Social sustainability
10.3
Economical sustainability
10.4
Environmental
sustainability
10.4.1 Atmosphere
(i)
Greenhouse effect
(ii)
Sources of greenhouse
gases
10.4.2 Mechanism of trapping
heat by greenhouse gases
10.4.3 Global greenhouse gas
emission by human activities
(a)
Carbon dioxide gas CO2
(b) Methane CH4
(c) Nitrous oxide N2O
(d) Fluorinated gases F-gases
10.5 Global warming
10.5.1 The carbon footprint
10.5.2 Reducing and
off-setting carbon footprints
10.6 Projections on average temperature rise of
1.50C above preindustrial levels
10.7 United
Nation’s efforts
10.7.1 Outlook Scenarios: Computer model based scenarios
prepared by IEA
10.8 Sustainability of land mass
10.9 Sustainability of water bodies
10.10.1 Sustainability of river and other water systems
10.10 Some efforts for improving the sustainability
of environment
10.10.1 A unique
fight against climate change; the ice stupa or artificial glacier
10.11 Sustainable energy
10.11.1 Units of energy
10.11.2 Primary energy
10.11.3 Global energy
production, an overview
10.11.4 Electricity; the most
convenient form of energy
10.11.5 Cost of electricity by
source: Cost metrics
10.11.6 Energy densities
associated with prevalent energy sources
10.11.7 Problem with present
energy mix
10.12 Some clean and sustainable sources
10.12.1 Hydrogen as an
alternative source of energy
10.13 Hydrogen fuel cell
(a) Polymer
Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) hydrogen fuel cell
(b) Alkaline
fuel cells (AFCs)
(c) Phosphoric
Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)
(d)
Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)
(e)
Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs)
(f)
Solid Oxide Fuel Cells
(SOFCs)
(g)
Reversible Fuel Cells
10.14 Nuclear Energy
10.14.1 Drawbacks of fission
reactor
10.14.2 Plus points of fission
reactor
10.14.3 Accelerator driven energy
amplifier
10.15 Terrain dependent renewable energy sources
10.15.1 Geothermal energy
10.15.2 Hydroelectric energy
(a) Advantages
(b) Disadvantages
10.16 Wind energy
10.17 Solar energy
10.17.1 Solar thermal
10.17.2 Solar Photo Voltaic
(PV) Technology
10.18 Energy from ocean
10.18.1 Tidal energy
10.18.2 Ocean thermal energy
10.19 Portable sources of sustainable energy
10.19.1 Lithium ion battery
10.19.2 Super capacitor
Short answer
questions
Multiple choice
questions
Long answer
questions
R. Prasad is an emeritus professor of physics, formerly Dean of the Faculty of Science and Chairman of the Department of Physics, Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), India. He has more than 40 years of experience teaching nuclear physics, thermal physics, and electronics to upper-level university students. He has supervised around a dozen Ph.D thesises and has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research papers in renowned international journals and is author of several books spanning the disciplines of classical, quantum, thermal and nuclear physics.
This textbook covers the physics of engineering materials and the latest technologies used in modern engineering projects. It has been designed for use as a reference book and course material for undergraduate engineering students. The book was born out of the need for a comprehensive, balanced, and up-to-date guide for teaching physics to beginning undergraduate engineering students and creating examination papers for technical boards and institutes. The text is divided into ten chapters, each with its specific objectives and features. The topics covered include the classification of engineering materials, atomic structure, electrical and magnetic behavior of solids, quantum mechanics, laser technology, nanomaterials, and sustainable development.
Authored by a physicist with over 40 years of teaching experience, this richly-illustrated textbook features an abundance of self-assessment questions, solved examples, and a variety of chapter-end questions with detailed answers. The textbook starts from the very basics and is developed to the desired level, thus making it ideal as standalone course material.
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