Physical Properties of Materials

ISBN-13: 9780442300975 / Angielski / Miękka / 1976 / 304 str.

M. C. Lovell

Opis

Materials Science has now become established as a discipline in its own right as well as being of increasing importance in the fields of Physics, Chemistry and Engineering. To the student meeting this subject for the first time the combination of disciplines which it embraces represents a formidable challenge. He will require to understand the lan- guage of the physicist and chemist as well as appreciate the practical uses and limita- tions of solid materials. This book has been written as an introduction to the Physical Properties of Materials with these thoughts in mind. The mathematical content has been limited deliberately and emphasis is placed on providing a sound basis using simplified models. Once these are understood we feel that a mathematical approach is more readily assimilated and for this purpose supplementary reading is suggested. While the authors are deeply aware of the pitfalls in attempting such a treatment this is meant to be an essentially simple book to point the many avenues to be explored. We anticipate that the book will appeal to first and second year degree students in a variety of disciplines and may not prove too difficult for those studying appropriate Higher National Certificate and Diploma courses. Electrical engineers working in the field of materials applications may well find it useful as a guide to modern thinking about materials and their properties. The book begins with an introduction to some basic ideas of modern physics.

Spis treści

1 Fundamentals.- 1.1 Introduction.- 1.2 Wave mechanics.- 1.2.1 The hydrogen atom.- 1.3 Many-electron atoms and the Pauli Principle.- 1.3.1 Electron states in multi-electron atoms.- 1.4 Transition elements.- 1.5 Atomic magnetism.- 1.5.1 Diamagnetism.- 1.5.2 Paramagnetism.- 1.5.3 Exchange.- 1.6 Electrons in solids.- 2 Structure of Solids.- 2.1 Introduction—atomic bonding.- 2.1.1 Ionic bonding.- 2.1.2 Covalent bonding.- 2.1.3 Metallic (unsaturated covalent) bonding.- 2.1.4 Van der Waals bonding (molecular bonding).- 2.2 Crystal structure.- 2.3 Lattice planes and directions.- 2.4 Atomic packing.- 2.5 Covalent solids.- 2.6 Ionic solids.- 2.7 Summary.- 2.8 Lattice imperfections.- 2.9 Lattice vibrations.- 2.10 Point defects.- 2.11 Line defects.- 2.11.1 The edge dislocation.- 2.11.2 The screw dislocation.- 2.11.3 The Burgers vector.- 2.12 Plane defects.- 2.13 Amorphous materials.- 3 Preparation of Materials.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Mechanism of crystal growth.- 3.3 Growth from the melt.- 3.3.1 Growth from crucibles.- 3.3.2 Non-crucible methods.- 3.3.3 Zone refining.- 3.4 Non-melt techniques.- 3.4.1 Fluxed-melt technique.- 3.4.2 Chemical transport.- 3.4.3 Gel growth.- 3.5 Thin films.- 3.6 The origin of dislocations during crystal growth.- 3.6.1 Collapse of vacancy discs.- 3.6.2 Strain resulting from thermal stress or impurities.- 3.6.3 Dendritic growth.- 3.7 Non-crystalline materials.- 3.8 Amorphous semiconductors.- 3.9 Plastic materials.- 3.9.1 Polymerization.- 3.9.2 Structure of polymers.- 3.9.3 Thermoplastic and themosetting plastics.- 4 Practical Determination of Structure.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Theoretical X-ray diffraction.- 4.3 Practical X-ray diffraction.- 4.3.1 The Laue technique.- 4.3.2 The rotating crystal technique.- 4.3.3 The powder technique.- 4.4 Other applications of X-ray diffraction.- 4.4.1 Preferred orientation in polycrystalline metals.- 4.4.2 X-ray topography.- 4.4.3 Study of polymer materials.- 4.5 Neutron diffraction.- 4.6 Electron diffraction.- 4.7 Structure of amorphous materials.- 4.8 Other techniques.- 4.8.1 Field-ion microscopy.- 4.8.2 Infra-red spectroscopy.- 4.8.3 Observation of dislocations.- 5 Mechanical Properties of Materials.- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Mechanical testing.- 5.3 Elastic behaviour.- 5.4 Plastic behaviour.- 5.4.1 Dislocation multiplication.- 5.4.2 Additional dislocation motion and dislocation interactions.- 5.4.3 Behaviour of polycrystalline materials.- 5.5 Fracture.- 5.5.1 Brittle fracture.- 5.5.2 Ductile fracture.- 5.5.3 Fatigue failure.- 5.6 Strengthening of materials.- 5.6.1 Strain (or work) hardening.- 5.6.2 Solution hardening.- 5.6.3 Precipitation and dispersion hardening.- 5.7 Creep.- 5.8 Mechanical properties of plastics.- 6 Thermal Properties.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Thermal statistics.- 6.3 Heat capacity.- 6.4 Specific heat anomalies.- 6.5 Thermal expansion.- 6.6 Thermal conductivity.- 6.7 Thermoelectricity.- 6.7.1 Thermoelectric power.- 6.7.2 Seebeck effect.- 6.7.3 Thomson effect.- 6.7.4 Peltier effect.- 7 Electrical Properties.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Metals.- 7.2.1 Impurities.- 7.2.2 Pressure.- 7.3 Semiconductors.- 7.3.1 II-VI compounds.- 7.3.2 III-V compounds.- 7.3.3 The Gunn diode.- 7.3.4 Other semiconducting compounds.- 7.3.5 V-VI compounds.- 7.4 Transition metal compounds.- 7.5 Polarons.- 7.6 Magnetic semiconductors.- 7.6.1 The metal-insulator transition.- 7.7 Amorphous materials.- 7.8 Switching.- 7.8.1 Ovonic threshold switch.- 7.8.2 Ovonic memory switch.- 8 Dielectrics.- 8.1 Introduction.- 8.2 Mechanisms of polarization.- 8.2.1 Induced polarization.- 8.2.2 Orientational polarization.- 8.3 The local field.- 8.4 The Clausius-Mosotti relation.- 8.5 Dielectric relaxation.- 8.6 Applications.- 8.7 Piezoelectric, pyroelectric and ferroelectric materials.- 8.8 Piezoelectricity.- 8.8.1 Electromechanical coupling coefficient.- 8.8.2 Ceramic piezoelectrics.- 8.8.3 Piezoelectric materials and their applications.- 8.9 Ferroelectricity.- 8.10 Classification of ferroelectric materials.- 8.11 Barium titanate.- 8.12 Ferroelectric ceramics.- 8.13 Ferroelectric domains.- 8.13.1 Observation of domains.- 8.14 Pyroelectricity.- 8.14.1 Applications of pyroelectric materials.- 9 Magnetic Properties.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 Classification of magnetic materials.- 9.3 Diamagnetism.- 9.4 Paramagnetism 187 9.4.1 Pauli paramagnetism.- 9.5 Ferromagnetism.- 9.6 Magnetic anisotropy.- 9.7 Magnetostriction.- 9.8 Ferromagnetic domains.- 9.8.1 Origin of domains.- 9.8.2 Domain walls.- 9.8.3 Domain patterns.- 9.9 Microscopic explanations of ferromagnetism.- 9.10 Applications of ferromagnetic materials.- 9.11 Antiferromagnetism.- 9.12 Antiferromagnetic compounds.- 9.13 Antiferromagnetic domains.- 9.13.1 Observation of antiferromagnetic domains.- 9.14 Ferrimagnetism.- 9.14.1 Normal spinel.- 9.14.2 Inverse spinel.- 9.15 Ferrimagnetic domains—magnetic bubbles.- 9.16 Magnetic ceramics.- 9.17 Applications of ferrimagnetic materials.- 9.17.1 Permanent magnets.- 9.17.2 Soft ferrites.- 9.17.3 Rectangular loop ferrites.- 9.17.4 Microwave ferrites.- 10 Optical Properties.- 10.1 Introduction.- 10.2 Refractive index.- 10.2.1 Birefringence.- 10.2.2 Dispersion.- 10.3 Absorption.- 10.3.1 Ionic materials.- 10.3.2 Semiconductors.- 10.3.3 Metals.- 10.3.4 Impurities.- 10.3.5 Colour centres.- 10.3.6 Excitons.- 10.4 Reflection.- 10.5 Natural birefringence.- 10.5.1 Double refraction.- 10.6 Induced birefringence.- 10.6.1 Linear electro-optics.- 10.6.2 Intensity modulation.- 10.6.3 Quadratic electro-optics.- 10.6.4 Elasto-optics.- 10.7 Non-linear optics.- 10.8 Secondary processes.- 10.8.1 Photoelectric emission.- 10.8.2 Photoconductivity.- 10.8.3 Photoluminescence.- 10.9 Lasers.- 10.9.1 Principles of laser action.- 10.9.2 Solid state lasers.- 10.9.3 Gas lasers.- 10.9.4 Semiconductor diode lasers.- 11 Superconductivity.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Resistanceless and superconducting states.- 11.3 Superconductivity.- 11.4 Penetration depth.- 11.5 The two-fluid model.- 11.6 The intermediate state.- 11.7 Coherence length.- 11.7.1 Coherence length and surface energy.- 11.8 Type II superconductors.- 11.8.1 The mixed state.- 11.8.2 Critical currents.- 11.9 Theory of superconductivity.- 11.9.1 The energy gap in superconductors.- 11.9.2 Electron interactions.- 11.9.3 Zero resistance.- 11.10 Superconducting materials and their applications.- 11.10.1 Superconducting magnets.- 11.10.2 A.C. applications.- 11.10.3 Other applications.- 11.10.4 The future.- Appendix I Electrons in Solids.- A1.1 The free electron model.- A1.2 The band model.- A1.3 Electrons and holes-effective mass.- Appendix II Periodic Chart of the Elements.- Appendix III List of the Elements.- Table of Physical Constants.- Answers to Questions.