Preface ixChapter 1. Overview of the Nucleus 11.1. Discovery of the electron 21.1.1. Hittorf and Crookes experiments 21.1.2. Perrin and Thomson experiments 41.1.3. Millikan experiment 81.2. The birth of the nucleus 121.2.1. Perrin and Thomson atomic model 121.2.2. Geiger and Marsden experiment 131.2.3. Rutherford scattering: Planetary atomic model 141.2.4. Rutherford's differential effective cross-section 161.3. Composition of the nucleus 221.3.1. Discovery of the proton 221.3.2. Discovery of the neutron 241.3.3. Internal structure of nucleons: u and d quarks 281.3.4. Isospin 301.3.5. Nuclear spin 311.3.6. Nuclear magnetic moment 311.4. Nucleus dimensions 331.4.1. Nuclear radius 331.4.2. Nuclear density, skin thickness 351.5. Nomenclature of nuclides 391.5.1. Isotopes, isobars, isotones 391.5.2. Mirror nuclei, Magic nuclei 431.6. Nucleus stability 431.6.1. Atomic mass unit 431.6.2. Segrè diagram, nuclear energy surface 451.6.3. Mass defect, binding energy 461.6.4. Binding energy per nucleon, Aston curve 491.6.5. Separation energy of a nucleon 521.6.6. Nuclear forces 541.7. Exercises 541.8. Solutions to exercises 59Chapter 2. Nuclear Deexcitations 692.1. Nuclear shell model 712.1.1. Overview of nuclear models 712.1.2. Individual state of a nucleon 722.1.3. Form of the harmonic potential 732.1.4. Shell structure derived from a harmonic potential 752.1.5. Shell structure derived from a Woods-Saxon potential 822.2. Angular momentum and parity 932.2.1. Angular momentum and parity of ground state 932.2.2. Angular momentum and parity of an excited state 972.3. Gamma deexcitation 1002.3.1. Definition, deexcitation energy 1002.3.2. Angular momentum and multipole order of gamma-radiation 1042.3.3. Classification of gamma-transitions, parity of gamma-radiation 1052.3.4. gamma-transition probabi lities, Weisskopf estimates 1062.3.5. Conserving angular momentum and parity 1072.4. Internal conversion 1122.4.1. Definition 1122.4.2. Internal conversion coefficients 1142.4.3. Partial conversion coefficients 1152.4.4. K-shell conversion 1162.5. Deexcitation by nucleon emission 1192.5.1. Definition 1192.5.2. Energy balance 1202.5.3. Bound levels and virtual levels 1212.5.4. Study of an example of delayed-neutron emission 1242.6. Bethe-Weizsäcker semi-empirical mass formula 1262.6.1. Presentation of the liquid-drop model 1262.6.2. Bethe-Weizsäcker formula, binding energy 1262.6.3. Volume energy, surface energy 1272.6.4. Coulomb energy 1282.6.5. Asymmetry energy, pairing energy 1302.6.6. Principle of semi-empirical evaluation of coefficients in Bethe-Weizsäcker form 1312.6.7. Isobar binding energy, the most stable isobar 1402.7. Mass parabola equation for odd A 1432.7.1. Expression 1432.7.2. Determining the nuclear charge of the most stable isobar from the decay energy 1452.7.3. Mass parabola equation for even A 1492.8. Nuclear potential barrier 1542.8.1. Definition, model of the rectangular potential well 1542.8.2. Modifying the model of the rectangular potential well 1552.9. Exercises 1562.10. Solutions to exercises 165Chapter 3. Alpha Radioactivity 1873.1. Experimental facts 1883.1.1. Becquerel's observations, radioactivity 1883.1.2. Discovery of alpha radioactivity and ß. radioactivity 1893.1.3. Discovery of the positron 1913.1.4. Discovery of the neutrino, Cowan and Reines experiment 1933.1.5. Highlighting alpha, ß and gamma radiation 1983.2. Radioactive decay 2013.2.1. Rutherford and Soddy's empirical law 2013.2.2. Radioactive half-life 2013.2.3. Average lifetime of a radioactive nucleus 2033.2.4. Activity of a radioactive source 2043.3. alpha radioactivity 2043.3.1. Balanced equation 2043.3.2. Mass defect (loss of matter), decay energy 2053.3.3. Decay energy diagram 2083.3.4. Fine structure of alpha lines 2103.3.5. Geiger-Nuttall law 2123.3.6. Quantum model of alpha emission by tunnel effect 2143.3.7. Estimating the radioactive half-life, Gamow factor 2163.4. Exercises 2203.5. Solutions to exercises 222Chapter 4. Beta Radioactivity, Radioactive Family Tree 2294.1. Beta radioactivity 2304.1.1. Experiment of Frédéric and Irène Joliot-Curie: discovery of artificial radioactivity 2304.1.2. Balanced equation, ß decay energy 2354.1.3. Continuous ß emission spectrum 2384.1.4. Sargent diagram, ß transition selection rules 2404.1.5. Decay energy diagram 2434.1.6. Condition of ß+ emission 2454.1.7. Decay by electron capture 2474.1.8. Double ß decay, branching ratio 2514.1.9. Atomic deexcitation, Auger effect 2544.2. Radioactive family trees 2594.2.1. Definition 2594.2.2. Simple two-body family tree 2604.2.3. Multi-body family tree, Bateman equations 2624.2.4. Secular equilibrium 2654.3. Radionuclide production by nuclear bombardment 2684.3.1. General aspects 2684.3.2. Production rate of a radionuclide 2694.3.3. Production yield of a radionuclide 2714.4. Natural radioactive series 2754.4.1. Presentation 2754.4.2. Thorium (4n) family 2764.4.3. Neptunium (4n + 1) family 2784.4.4. Uranium-235 (4n +2) family 2804.4.5. Uranium-238 (4n + 3) family 2824.5. Exercises 2864.6. Solutions to exercises 293Appendices 313Appendix 1 315Appendix 2 323References 331Index 337
Ibrahima Sakho is a research professor at the Iba Der Thiam University, Senegal. He has taught nuclear physics for more than 25 years; both at high school level (from 1996 to 2010) and at university level (since 2010). He has also written several books which have been published in Dakar, Paris, London and the USA.