Nuclear Electronics with Quantum Cryogenic Detectors

ISBN-13: 9781119834687 / Angielski / Twarda / 2022 / 400 str.

Vladimir Polushkin

Spis treści

PREFACEChapter 1. Interaction of nuclear radiation with detector absorbersIntroduction.1.1. Intrinsic quantum efficiency of radiation detectors.1.2. Detection of charged particles.1.2.1. Light charged particles.1.2.2. Continuous "braking" radiation (bremsstrahlung).1.2.3. Backscattering of charged particles.1.2.4. Heavy charged particles.1.3. Primary interactions of X- and gamma-ray photons with solid-state absorbers.1.3.1. The photoelectric effect.1.3.2. The Compton scattering.1.3.3. The pair production.1.3.4. Attenuation of photon radiation in solid-state detector absorbers1.4. Detection of neutrons with solid-state radiation sensors.1.5. Heat generation in athermal absorbers.Chapter 2. Radiation detectors with superconducting absorbersIntroduction.2.1. Selected topics of the superconductivity theory2.1.1. The electron-phonon interaction and Cooper pairing mechanisms2.1.2. The behaviour of superconductors in the magnetic field.2.1.3. The tunnel Josephson junction.2.1.4. The superconducting transmission line: the kinetic inductance.2.2. Superconducting absorbers: the down-conversion of particle energy, intrinsic energy resolution.2.2.1. The energy down-conversion process in superconducting absorbers.2.2.2. The intrinsic energy resolution of quasi-particle detectors with superconducting absorbers.2.3. Transport in the non-equilibrium superconductors. Incomplete charge collection mechanisms2.3.1. The recombination time of quasi-particles in superconducting absorbers2.3.2. The Rothwarf-Taylor phenomenological framework2.3.3. The diffusion of quasi-particles in thin-film superconducting absorbers. Incomplete charge collection2.3.4. Noise Equivalent Power (NEP) of superconducting absorbers2.4. Quasi-particle radiation detectors with Superconducting Tunnel Junction (STJ) readout2.4.1. The bandgap engineering and fabrication of STJ detectors.2.4.2. The Giaever I-V curve of the STJ.2.4.3. The tunneling mechanisms in STJs.2.4.4. Pile-up and count rate capability of the STJ detectors.2.5. Quasi-particle radiation detectors with microwave kinetic inductance sensors (MKID)2.5.1. The operating principle of microwave kinetic inductance sensors.2.5.2. The DROID X-ray detector with microwave kinetic inductance sensor readout.2.6. STJ detectors frequency domain multiplexing with microwave SQUIDsChapter 3. Radiation detectors with normal metal absorbersIntroduction3.1. Spectrometers based on Transition Edge Sensor (TES) microcalorimeters.3.1.1. Fundamentals of TES design.3.1.2. The electro-thermal feedback in TES microcalorimeters.3.2. TES Microcalorimeters with Microwave SQUID (MSQUID) readout. Imaging cameras3.3. Hot electron microcalorimeter with the NIS tunnel junction thermometerChapter 4. Radiation detectors with semiconductor absorbersIntroduction4.1. Semiconductor transport.4.1.1. Valence bond and energy band models.4.1.2. Carrier scattering mechanisms and mobility in the semiconductor bulk materials.4.1.3. Carrier generation and recombination (G-R) processes.4.1.4. Effects of the G-R transport on the performance of radiation detectors.4.1.5. Tunneling-assisted transport in semiconductor materials.4.1.6. Tunneling transport across the thin dielectric barrier.4.1.7. The semiconductor-vacuum interface. Surface transport4.2. Macroscopic modelling of semiconductor devices4.2.1. Microscopic models based on the Schroedinger Equation4.2.2. The semi-classical transport models4.2.3. The initial and boundary conditions in device modeling. The Ramo-Shockley theorem4.3. Front windows in semiconductor radiation detectors4.3.1. Entrance window based on the Schottky barrier junction4.3.2. Front window based Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor (MIS) junction4.3.3. The pn junction based front window in radiation detectors4.4. Fabrication of semiconductor drift detectors (SDD)4.4.1. The epitaxially grown ultra-shallow p+n junction entrance windows4.4.2. The pureB technology for ultra-shallow entrance windows4.5. Semiconductor drift detectors4.5.1. Semiconductor detectors: operation principle and performance specifications4.5.2. The intrinsic energy resolution of semiconductor detectors4.5.3. Time response of SDDs4.6. The quantum calorimetric electron-hole detector with semiconductor absorber4.6.1. The phonon system dynamics in semiconductor materials4.6.2. The design and performance of the quantum electron-hole detectorsChapter 5. Front End Readout Electronic Circuits for Quantum Cryogenic Detectors.Introduction5.1 JFET transconductance preamplifiers5.1.1. Principles of JFET transconductance amplifiers5.1.2. Settling time of preamplifiers5.2Dynamic and noise properties of JFET amplifiers5.2.1. Static and dynamic parameters of JFETs5.2.2. Noise characteristics of JFETs5.2.3. PentaFET. High precision reset mechanism5.2.4. The JFET cascode stage5.2.5. The source follow-based charge-sensitive preamplifier5.2.6. The differential stage based on matched JFETs5.3 High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) low noise amplifiers5.4. The dc SQUID current amplifiers5.4.1. The dcSQUID as a superconducting parametric amplifier5.4.2. The dcSQUID with an intermediary input transformer5.4.3. The coupled energy resolution of a double transformer dcSQUID5.4.4. The dcSQUID readout electronics5.4.5. The dcSQUID with the digital Bode FLL controller5.4.6. The dcSQUID amplifier in the small-signal limit (noise)5.4.7. The dcSQUID current amplifier in the large signal limit (dynamics)5.4.8. The dcSQUID current amplifier in the large signal limit (noise)5.5dc SQUID current amplifier at ultra low temperature5.5.1. A double-stage amplifier with a single front ULT dcSQUID5.5.2. A double stage amplifier with the front ULT SQUID array5.6 Microwave SQUID parametric amplifier5.6.1. Operation principle of microwave SQUIDs with external pumping (MSQUIDs)5.6.2. The non-linearities in the MSQUID readout5.6.3. The flux-ramp modulation methodology5.6.4. Performance of MSQUID current amplifier5.7 Design methodologies of analogue circuitries5.7.1. The Laplace transform. Transfer functions of electronic networks5.7.2. Design of analog pulse-shaping filter cells5.7.3. Design of low-pass filters5.7.4. Graphical methods of analysis and synthesis in the frequency domain5.7.5. The describing function of non-linear elements in the frequency domain5.7.6. Systems with synchronous multipliersChapter 6. The Energy Resolution of Radiation Spectrometers.Introduction6.1 Signal-to-noise ratio, equivalent noise charge of radiation spectrometers. General definitions6.2Energy resolution of quasi-particle detectors (STJs, SDDs)6.2.1. The tunnel junction coupled to a JFET transconductance amplifier6.2.2. Energy resolution of STJ sensors read out with SQUID current preamps6.3Optimal filtration in radiation spectrometers6.4Energy resolution of TES microcalorimeters6.5Matrix readout multiplexing of STJ detectors6.5.1. Matrix readout of STJ sensors with JFET transconductance amplifiers6.5.2. Matrix readout with SQUID current amplifiers6.6Time division multiplexing (TDM)6.7 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) with microwave SQUIDs (muMUX)6.8Code division multiplexing (CDM). Spread spectrum modulation (SSM)Chapter 7. Signal processing in radiation spectrometersIntroduction7.1. Signal conditioning units7.1.1. Overview digital pulse processing architectures7.1.2. AC coupled digital spectrometers7.1.3. Digital pulse processing with moving window deconvolution7.1.4. DC-coupled digital pulse processors7.1.5. DC-coupled digital pulse processors with a sliding window signal conditioner7.2.Analogue-to-digital conversion7.2.1. Analog-to-digital converters. Basic information7.2.2. The quantisation noise model of ADC7.2.3. Nonlinearities of ADC7.2.4. Aperture time of ADCs7.2.5. Aperture uncertainty of ADCs7.2.6. Reduction of the differential nonlinearity with the sliding scale method7.3.Digital filtration7.3.1. Z-transform methodology7.3.2. Design of digital filters with z-transform7.3.3. The stability of digital filters7.3.4. Trapezoidal pulse shaping digital filter7.3.5. Moving average pulse processing7.4.Throughput of digital spectrometers7.4.1. Pulse recognition channel. Pile up detection7.4.2. Timing resolution of digital spectrometers7.4.3. The pile up decoding in digital pulse processors7.4.4. Digital rise (fall) time discriminators7.5.Selected topics on the hardware design7.5.1. Noise reduction in systems with switching power supplies7.5.2. PCB layout7.5.3. Layout, decoupling, and grounding of ADCs7.5.4. Grounding aspects of the system designChapter 8. Ultra-Low Temperature (ULT) cryogenic arrangement.Introduction8.1. Cooling technologies for sub-1K temperature8.1.1. The 3He refrigerator8.1.2. The adiabatic demagnetisation refrigerator (ADR)8.1.3. Temperature control in ADRs8.2.Magnetic shielding at ultra low temperature8.2.1. The µ-metal shield8.2.2. The superconducting shielding8.2.3. Solenoid inside a cylindrical superconducting shield8.3.Thermal load on ULT stages8.3.1.Thermal conduction through solids8.3.2. Thermal conduction through the gas8.3.3. Thermal radiation8.4.Cryogenic packaging for the Focal Plane Array (FPA) unit8.4.1. Design of the FPA unit implementing the TDM technique8.4.2. The collimation of the FPA unit8.4.3. Solid angle of the nuclear radiation spectrometer8.4.4. Focusing poly-capillary optics8.4.5. Wiring at mK temperatures8.5.Cryogenic design for detectors with micro-wave frequency division multiplexing8.6.The collection efficiency of radiation spectrometersChapter 9. Applications of radiation spectrometers based on quantum cryogenic detectorsIntroduction9.1.Nano-analytical chemistry with the SEM electron probe9.1.1. The SEM-based energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)9.1.2. The dual array TES-based EDS9.1.3. Complementary techniques in the electron probe nano-analysis: the Auger spectroscopy9.1.4. Complementary techniques in the electron probe nano-analysis: the wavelength dispersive spectrometers9.2.Energy dispersive MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry for biochemical analysisIndex

O autorze

Vladimir Polushkin, MA, MBA, PhD, is a Business and Technological Consultant in High-Precision Instrumentation Industries and Sensorics, UK. He received his MA with distinction in Applied Physics from Tomsk Technical University (Russia) Division of Applied Physics, an MBA with distinction from Oxford Brookes University, UK, and a PhD in Applied Physics from Kiev University. He began his scientific career with the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Russia in the Laboratory of Neutron Physics, which was headed by Nobel Prize winner I.M. Frank.