Motivation and Desire

ISBN-13: 9783031104794 / Angielski / Miękka / 2023

William J. Freed

Opis

Some of our time is spent eating and drinking and some is spent on matters regarding reproduction. Some of us seek fame or recognition while others seek satisfaction internally, with little need for recognition. Some people study for success in a profession, while others might study rocks, birds, or French literature for no apparent reason other than to know about it. Why are we motivated to engage in so many apparently unrelated activities?            This book places our various activities into categories, thus providing a framework for understanding how everything that we do fits together and is based on brain mechanisms. Disturbances in motivation play important roles in autism, depression, Parkinson's disease, and addiction. Understanding the motivational aspects of these disorders can help to inform our approach to these conditions. This book may be of value for students in psychology, counseling, management, and anyone who is interested in understanding our daily behavior.

Spis treści

Preface, Summary, and Acknowledgements

            Summary

            Acknowledgements

            References

 

Chapter 1: Introduction

            1.1 Overview

1.2 Scope and Purpose

            References

 

PART I:  A Classification Scheme for Motivation

 

Chapter 2: Reward, Punishment, Desire, Pleasure, and Terminology

            2.1 Reward and Punishment

            2.2 Terms Used in Discussing Motivation

2.3 Phases of Motivated Behavior  

2.4 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 3: A Classification Scheme

            3.1 Three Types of Motivation

            3.2 Motivation Viewed as Intrinsic, Extrinsic, Instrumental, or Internal

            References

Chapter 4: Type A Motivation or Biological Needs

            4.1 Eating

4.2 Drinking

4.3 Sex and Reproduction

4.4 Nurturing

4.5 Shelter

4.6 Money

4.7 Conclusions

4.8 Discussion Questions

References

Chapter 5: Type B or Social Motivation

5.1 Distinguishing Type B from Type A Motivation

5.2 Cooperation Versus Competition

5.3 Social Dominance in Animals

5.4 Social Dominance in Humans: Power, Influence and Recognition

5.5 Fame and Political Influence

5.6 Reclusivity and Hikkimori

5.7 Loneliness

5.8 Pets

5.9 Other Common Forms of Social Contact

5.10 Families

5.11 Charity Work and Volunteering

5.12 Discussion Questions

References

Chapter 6:  Type C Motivation as Growth and Development of Cerebral Organization

            6.1 Learning and Type C Motivation

            6.2 Origins of the Type C Motivation Concept

            6.3 Why Does Type C Motivation Exist?

6.4 Challenge and Resolution

            6.5 Why is Type C Motivation Important?

6.6 Discussion Questions

References

Chapter 7: Long-Term Executive Function

            7.1 How Executive Function can be Assessed

            7.2 Long-Term Planning as Executive Function

            7.3 Executive Function as a General and as a Scientific Concept

            7.4 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 8: Relevant Concepts from Motivational Psychology

            8.1 Behaviorism and Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Motivation

            8.2 Intrinsic-Extrinsic Versus Internal-Instrumental Motivation

            8.3 Maslow’s Essential Needs Theory Versus Alderfer’s ERG Theory

            8.4 Discussion Questions

References

Chapter 9: Altruism

            9.1 Social Empathy Contributes to Altruism

            9.2 Neurocomputational View of Altruisim

            9.3 Altruistic Acts Can Cause Pleasure

            9.4 Conclusions

            9.5 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 10: Are Some People Motivated Differently than Others?

            10.1 Managing Basic Necessities

            10.2 What Drives Our Social Needs?

            10.3 Fostering Intellectual Pursuits

            10.4 Historical Figures

            10.5 Conclusions

            10.6 Discussion Questions

            References

 

PART II:  Brain Mechanisms and Disorders

 

 

 

 

Chapter 11: Biology of Motivation, Dopamine, and Brain Circuits that Mediate Pleasure.

11.1 Brain Cell Types and Neurotransmitters

11.2 A Closer Look at Dopamine

11.3 Motivation to Eat

11.4 Aversion

11.5 Serotonin

11.6 Where is Pleasure Represented in the Brain?

11.7 Summary

11.8 Discussion Questions

References

Chapter 12: What Electrical Stimulation of the Brain Tells Us About Motivation

            12.1 Electrical Brain Stimulation in Humans

            12.2 Brain Circuits in Rewarding Electrical Stimulation

            12.3 Animals Self-Activate Hunger or Thirst

            12.4 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 13: How the Brain Signals Reward

            13.1 Prediction of Reward

            13.2 Prediction Error Response of Dopamine Neurons

13.3 What Does this Mean for Our Daily Lives?

            13.4 Prediction Error and “Habits”

13.5 Discussion Questions

References

Chapter 14: Type C Motivation in Rats

            14.1 Dopamine Neurons are Important for Learning Associations Between                                         Environmental Cues

            14.2 Other Neurons Inhibit Learning of Associations

            14.3 Conclusions

            14.4 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 15: Type C Motivation in Humans

            15.1 Learning Seems to be Rewarding in Itself

            15.2 Novel Experiments to Examine Learning Without a Tangible Reward

            15.3 A Personal Example

            15.4 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 16: Brain Mechanisms Related to Social and Reproductive Behavior

            16.1 Social Interaction Activates Brain Reward Mechanisms in Human Subjects

            16.2 Autism

16.3 Oxytocin

16.4 Social Dominance and Social Defeat

            16.5 Conclusions

16.6 Discussion Questions

            References    

Chapter 17: Parkinson’s Disease

            17.1 Dopamine Dysregulation Syndrome

            17.2 Impulse Control Disorder in Parkinson's Disease and in Addiction

            17.3 Transplantation of Dopamine Neurons

            17.4 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 18: Addiction

18.1 Multiple Types of Drugs can be Addictive

18.2 Why Do Drugs Subvert Motivation?

            18.3 Adaptations Caused by Long-Term Exposure to Drugs

            18.4 Rewarding Effects of Drugs: Anhedonia, Pleasure, and Motivation

            18.5 Non-Drug Addictions

            18.6 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 19: Depression and Other Forms of Mental Illness

            19.1 Properties of Depression

            19.2 Motivation in Depression

            19.3 Ketamine

19.4 Other Forms of Mental Illness

            19.5 Conclusions

19.6 Discussion Questions

            References

Chapter 20: Conclusions

            20.1 How Rewards Work for Different Types of Motivation

            20.2 Positive Feedback in Type C Motivation

20.3 Discussion Questions

            References

 

O autorze

William Freed, obtained his bachelors degree from Rutgers University and attended graduate school at the University of Kansas, where he obtained Master's and Ph.D. degrees working with Joseph Mendelson and Elias K. Michaelis. During graduate school he gained experience in the neuroscience of motivation with Dr. Mendelson and neuropharmacology and biochemistry with Dr. Michaelis. After completing a Ph.D. he worked as a scientist at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Intramural Research Program, at the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) from 1977 to 1997 and at the National Institute on Drug Abuse from 1997 to 2015. While working at the NIMH, he was one of the scientists who performed the first studies showing that cells could be transplanted into the brain to improve motor function in animal models of Parkinson's disease. At the NIH he also worked on several additional topics including cell adhesion molecules in mental illness, development of techniques for modifying cells in vitro, development of in vitro stem cell model systems, and production of dopamine neurons from human embryonic stem cells. During the years prior to retirement his work focused on understanding how cocaine interferes with development of the human brain. He currently maintains a position of Adjunct Professor in the Department of Biology, Lebanon Valley College, Annville, Pennsylvania and is a Fellow Emeritus in the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology and the American Society for Neural Therapy and Repair.