Mineralogy: An Introduction to Minerals, Rocks, and Mineral Deposits

ISBN-13: 9783662573143 / Angielski / Twarda / 2020 / 719 str.

Martin Okrusch; Hartwig Frimmel

Opis

This book presents a translation of the classic German textbook of Mineralogy and Petrology that has been published for decades.

Spis treści

Part I

Introduction and basic concepts

 

1 Crystals

1.1 Crystal morphology

            1.1.1 Symmetry operations and symmetry elements

            1.1.2 Crystal systems and classes

            1.1.3 The Law of rational indices

1.2 Crystal structure

            1.2.1 Bravais lattices

            2.2.2 Space groups

            2.2.3 Determination of crystal structures by X-ray diffraction

1.3 Crystal chemistry

            1.3.1 Basic concepts

            1.3.2 Types of chemical bonds        

            1.3.3 Some important terms of crystal chemistry

1.4. Physical properties of crystals

            1.4.1 Hardness and cohesion

            1.4.2 Thermal conductivity

            1.4.3 Electric properties

            1.4.4 Magnetic properties

1.5 Optical crystallography

            1.5.1 Basic bonds

            1.5.2 Basic principles of microscopy in transmitted light

            1.5.3 Basic principles of microscopy reflected light

References

 

2 Minerals

2.1 Definition of the term mineral

2.2 Identification and classification of minerals

2.3 Mode of occurrence

2.4 Rock-forming and economic minerals  

2.4.1 Rock-forming minerals

            2.4.2 Economic minerals

            2.4.3 Gemstones

2.5 Biomineralisation and medical mineralogy

            2.5.1 Biogenic mineral formation

            2.5.2 Medical mineralogy

References

 

3 Rocks

3.1 Mineralogical composition of rocks

3.2 Relationships between lithogeochemistry and mineralogy

3.3 Rock fabric

            3.3.1 Texture (microstructure)

            3.3.2 Structure

3.4 Field relationships

3.5 Principal rock-forming processes

3.6 Mineral deposits

References

 

Part II

Systematic mineralogy – a selection of important minerals

 

4. Elements

4.1 Metals

4.2 Metalloids (semi-metals)

4.3 Non-metals

References

 

5 Sulfides, arsenides and complex sulfides (sulfosalts)

5.1 Metal su^ 1:1 (generally 2:1)

5.2 Metal sulfides and arsenites with M:S = 1:1

5.3 Metal sulfides, sulfarsenides and arsenites  with M:S ≤ 1:2

5.4 Arsenic sulfides

5.5 Complex metal sulfides (sulfosalts)

References

 

6 Halides

References

 

7 Oxides and hydroxides

7.1 M₂O compounds

7.2 M₃O₄ compounds

7.3 M₂O₃ compounds

7.4 MO₂ compounds

7.5 Hydroxides

References

 

8 Carbonates, nitrates, borates

8.1 Calcite group 32/m

8.2 Aragonite group 2/m2/m2/m

8.3 Dolomite group

8.4 Azurite–malachite group

8.5 Nitrates

8.6 Borates

References

 

9 Sulfates, chromates, molybdates, wolframates

9.1 Sulfates

9.2 Chromates

9.3 Molybdates and wolframates

References

 

10 Phosphates, arsenates, vanadates

References

 

11 Silicates

11.1 Orthosilicates (nesosilicates)

11.2 Disilicates (sorosilicates)

11.3 Ring silicates (cyclosilicates)

11.4 Chain silicates (inosilicates)

            11.4.1 Pyroxenes

            11.4.2 Pyroxenoids

            11.4.3 Amphiboles

11.5 Sheet silicates (phyllosilicates)

            11.5.1 Pyrophyllite–talc group

            11.5.2 Mica group

            11.5.3 Hydro-mica group

            11.5.4 Brittle mica group

            11.5.5 Chlorite series

            11.5.6 Serpentine group

            11.5.7 Clay minerals

            11.5.8 Apophyllite group

11.6 Framework silicates

            11.6.1 SiO₂ minerals

            11.6.2 Feldspar family

            11.6.3 Feldspathoids

            11.6.4 Cancrinite group

            11.6.5 Scapolite group

            11.6.6 Zeolite family  

References

 

12 Fluid inclusions in minerals

References

 

Part III

Petrology and metallogenesis

 

13. Igneous rocks

13.1. Classification of igneous rocks

            13.1.1 Principal classification based on geological position and fabric

            13.1.2 Classification based on mineralogy

            13.1.3 Classification based on bulk chemical composition

13.2 Petrography of igneous rocks

            13.2.1 Subalkaline magmatic rocks

            13.2.2 Alkaline magmatic rocks

            13.2.3 Carbonatite, kimberlite and lamproite

References

 

14 Volcanism

14.1 Effusive volcanism: lava flows

14.2 Extrusive volcanism

14.3 Explosive volcanism

14.4 Mixed volcanic activity: stratovolcanoes

14.5 Volcanic exhalations

References

 

15 Plutonism

15.1 Volcanic roots and magma chambers

15.2 Shapes of plutonic and subvolcanic intrusive bodies

15.3 Internal structure and emplacement of intrusive bodies

            15.3.1 Internal structure of plutons

            15.3.2 Emplacement mechanisms

            15.3.3 Layered intrusions

References

 

16 Magma and lava

16.1 Chemical composition and structure of magma

16.2 Volcanic gases

16.3 Temperatures of magmat

            16.3.1 Direct measurement by pyrometry

            16.3.2 Melting experiments on natural rocks

16.4 Viscosity of magmas and lavas

16.5 Solubility of volatiles in magma

References

 

17 Formation and evolution of magmas

17.1 Magma series

17.2 Primary and parental melts

            17.2.1 Primary basaltic melts

            17.2.2 Granitic melts

17.3 Magma mixing

17.4 Magmatic differentiation

            17.4.1 Fractional crystallisation

            17.4.2 Liquid immiscibility

17.5 Assimilation

References

 

18 Experiments in simplified model systems    

18.1 The Gibbs’ Phase Rule

18.2 Experiments in binary and ternary systems

            18.2.1 Experiments modelling the fractional crystallisation of basaltic magmas

            18.2.2 Experiments modelling the formation of SiO₂-oversaturated and undersaturated
                       magmas

            18.2.3 Experiments on the phase relations of mafic minerals in basaltic melts

18.3 Bowens’s Reaction Series

18.4 The basalt tetrahedron of Yoder and Tilley (1962)

18.5 Equilibrium melting and fractionated melting

References

 

19 The origin of basalt

19.1 Basalt types and plate tectonics

19.2 Formation of basaltic melts by partial melting of peridotite in Earth’s upper mantle

            19.2.1 The pyrolite model

            19.2.2 Partial melting of H₂O-free pyrolite

            19.2.3 Partial melting of H₂O-bearing pyrolite

References

 

20 The origin of granite

20.1 Petrogenetic classification of granitoids based on their chemical composition

20.2 Experiments on the petrogenesis of granite

            20.2.1 Introduction

            20.2.2 Crystallisation sequence in granitic melts: Experiments on the H₂O-saturated                       
                       model system Qz–Ab–Or–H₂O

            20.3.3 Experimental anatexis: Experiments under H₂O saturated and H₂O-
                       undersaturated conditions in the model system Qz–Ab–Or–H₂O(–CO₂)

            20.2.4 The model system Qz–Ab–An–Or–H₂O

            20.2.5 The model system Qz–Ab–An–H₂O

            20.2.6 The natural granite system

References

 

21 Orthomagmatic mineral deposits

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Mineralisation due to fractional crystallisation

            21.2.1 Chromite and chromite–PGE deposits

            21.2.2 Fe-Ti oxide deposits

21.3 Mineralisation due to liquid immiscibility

            21.3.1 pyrrhotite–pentlandite–chalcopyrite–PGE deposits in norites and pyroxenites

            21.3.2  pyrrhotite– pentlandite–chalcopyrite deposits in komatiites

            21.3.3 Magnetite–apatite deposits

21.4 Carbonatite- and alkaline-magmatic rock-hosted mineralisations

References

 

22 Pegmatites

22.1 Theoretical considerations

22.2 Field relations, petrography and petrogenesis of pegmatites

22.3 Pegmatites as sources of economic minerals

22.4 Geochemical classification of granitic pegmatites

 

23 Hydrothermal mineral deposits

23.1 Basic principles

23.2 Hydrothermal impregnation deposits

            23.2.1 Granite-related Sn-W deposits

            23.3.2 Porphyry Cu- (Mo-, Au-) deposits

23.3.3 Impregnations with native copper (Lake Superior type)

23.3 Hydrothermal replacement deposits

            23.3.1 Skarn deposits

            23.3.2 Mesothermal Cu–As replacement deposits

            23.3.3 Hydrothermal Pb–Ag–Zn replacement deposits

            23.3.4 Hyrothermal gold–pyrite replacement deposits (Carlin type)

            23.3.5 Metasomatic siderite deposits

23.4 Hydrothermal vein-type deposits

            23.4.1 Orogenic gold–quartz veins

            23.4.2 Epithermal Au- and Au–Ag veins (subvolcanic)

            23.4.3 Mesothermal Cu ore veins 

            23.4.4 Pb–Ag–Zn ore veins

            23.4.5 Sn–Ag–Bi ore veins in the Bolivian tin belt

23.4.6 Veins of Bi–Co–Ni–Ag–U ore

            23.4.7 Telethermal stibnite–quartz veins

            23.4.8 Hydrothermal siderite and haematite veins

            23.4.9 Non-metallic hydrothermal veins

            23.4.10 Quartz veins

            23.4.11 Mineralisation in late-orogenic tension joints

23.5 Volcanogenic-sedimentary ore deposits

            23.5.1 Ore formation by hydrothermal activity in the deep sea: Black smokers

            23.5.2 Volcanic hosted massive sulfide-ore deposits (VMS deposits)

            23.5.3 Volcanogenic massive Hg deposits

            23.5.4 Magmatogenic oxide-ore deposits

23.6 Non-magmatic stratabound hydrothermal deposits

            23.6.1 Sedimentary exhalative Pb–Zn deposits (SEDEX deposits)

            23.6.2 Carbonate-hosted ore deposits (MVT)

23.7 Unconformity-related uranium deposits

References

 

24. Weathering and mineral formation in soils

24.1 Mechanical weathering

24.2 Chemical weathering

            24.2.1 Highly soluble minerals        

            24.2.2 Silicate weathering

24.3 Subaerial weathering and climate zones

24.4 On the definition of the term soil

24.5 Weathering of silicate rocks and related deposits 

            24.5.1 Residual clay and other kaolin deposits

            24.5.2 Bentonite

            24.5.3 Bauxite

            24.5.4 Fe-, Mn- and Co-rich laterite

            24.5.5 Ni- and Co-rich laterite

            24.5.6 Other residual deposits

24.6 Weathering of sulfidic ore bodies

            24.6.1 Oxidation zone                      

            24.6.2 Cementation zone      

            24.6.3 Stability of important secondary copper minerals

 

25. Sediments and sedimentary rocks

25.1 Basic principles

            25.1.1 Classification of sediments and sedimentary rocks

            25.1.2 Structures of sediments and sedimentary rocks

25.2 Clastic sediments and sedimentary rocks

            25.2.1  Transport and deposition of clastic materials

            25.2.2 Chemical alteration during sediment transport

            25.2.3 Grain-size distribution of clastic sediments

            25.3.4 Diagenesis of clastic sediments

            25.2.5 Classification of rudites and arenites

            25.2.6 Heavy minerals in arenites

            25.2.7 Fluvial and marine placer deposits

            25.2.8 Red bed deposits

            25.2.9 Classification of argillites

            25.2.10 Diagenesis of argillites

            25.2.11 Base-metal deposits in black shales

            25.2.12 Transition from diagenesis to low-grade metamorphism

25.3 Chemical and biochemical sediments and sedimentary rocks

            25.3.1 Classification of sedimentary carbonate rocks

            25.3.2  Solubility and precipitation conditions of carbonates  

            25.3.3 Anorganic and biochemical carbonate precipitation in sea water

            25.3.4 Formation of terrestrial carbonate rocks

            25.3.5 Diagenesis of limestone

            25.3.6 Diagenetic magnesite deposits

25.4 Iron- and manganese-rich sediments and sedimentary rocks

            25.4.1 Stability field of Fe-minerals

            25.4.2 Sedimentary iron ores

            25.4.3 Sedimentary manganese ores

            25.4.4 Metal concentrations on the ocean floor

25.5 Siliceous sediments and sedimentary rocks

25.6 Sedimentary phosphate rocks

25.7 Evaporites

            25.7.1 Continental (terrestrial) evaporites

            25.7.2 Marine evaporites

 

26. Metamorphic rocks

26.1 Basic principles

            26.1.1 Metamorphic processes

            26.1.2 Protoliths of metamorphic rocks

            26.1.3  Lower and upper temperature boundaries of metamorphism

            26.1.4 The driving forces of metamorphism 

26.2 Metamorphism as a geological process

            26.2.1 Contact metamorphism

            26.2.2 Cataclastic metamorphism and mylonitisation

            26.2.3 Impact or shock metamorphism

            26.2.4 Hydrothermal metamorphism

            26.2.5 Regional metamorphism in orogens

            26.2.6 Burial metamorphism

            26.2.7 Ocean-floor metamorphism

26.3 Nomenclature of regional and contact metamorphic rocks

            26.3.1 Regional metamorphic rocks

            26.3.2 Contact metamorphic rocks

26.4 Structure and texture of metamorphic rocks

            26.4.1 Remnants of protolith-structures

            26.4.2 Metamorphic textures

26.4.3 Strain-induced preferred orientation of metamorphic minerals

26.5. Formation of migmatites by anatexis

            26.5.1 Definition of the term migmatite 

            26.5.2 Experimental evidence of migmatite formation by partial melting

            26.5.3 Mass balance in migmatites

            26.5.4 The global geodynamic relevance of anatexis

26.6 Metasomatism

            26.6.1 Contact metasomatism

            26.6.2 Autometasomatism

            26.2.3 Spilites as product of hydrothermal metamorphism and sodium metasomatism

References

 

27. Phase relations and mineral reactions in metamorphic rocks

27.1 Mineral equilibria in metamorphic rocks

            27.1.1 Assessment of chemical equilibrium

            27.1.2 Application of the Gibbs Phase Rule

            27.1.3 Gibbs free energy: stable and metastable equilibria

27.2 Metamorphic mineral reactions

            27.2.1 Polymorphic transformations and solid-solid reactions     

27.2.2  Dehydration reactions

            27.2.3 Decarbonation reactions

            27.2.4  Reactions involving both H₂O and CO₂

            27.2.5 Redox reactions

            27.2.6  Petrogenetic grids

27.3 Geothermometry and geobarometry

27.4 Pressure-temperature evolution of metamorphic complexes

            27.4.1 Pressure-temperature paths

            27.4.2  Pressure-temperature-time paths

27.5 Graphical presentation of metamorphic mineral assemblages

            27.5.1 ACF and A’KF diagrams

            27.5.2 AFM projections

References

 

28 Metamorphic facies and facies series

28.1 Principles of metamorphic facies

28.2 Metamorphic facies series

28.3 Mineralogical characteristics of individual metamorphic facies

            28.3.1 Zeolite and prehnite–pumpellyite facies

            28.3.2 Greenschist facies

            28.3.3 Epidote-amphibolite facies

            28.3.4 Amphibolite facies

            28.3.5 Granulite facies

            28.3.6 Hornfels facies

            28.3.7 Sanidinite facies

            28.3.8 Blueschist facies

            28.3.9 Eclogite facies

References

 

Part IV

Our planetary system

 

29 Earth's interior

29.1 Seismic evidence of the whole-Earth structure

            29.1.1 Physical background

            29.1.2 Propagation of seismic waves through Earth's interior

            29.1.3 Velocity distribution of seismic waves in Earth's interior

29.2 The crust

            29.2.1 Oceanic crust

            29.2.2 Continental crust

            29.2.3 The crust in orogenic belts

29.3 The mantle

            29.3.1 The uppermost lithospheric mantle and the nature of the Moho

            29.3.2 The asthenosphere as conveyor belt of lithosperic plates

            29.3.3 The transitional zone between upper and lower mantle

            29.3.4 The lower mantle 

29.4 The core

            29.4.1 Seismic evidence

            29.4.2 Chemical composition of the core

References

 

30. Lunar rocks and the Moon's interior 

30.1 The lunar crust

            30.1.1 Lunar highlands

            30.1.2 Maria

            30.1.3 Minerals in lunar rocks

            30.1.4 Lunar regolith

            30.1.5 Relics of water in the lunar regolith

30.2 Moon's internal layering

            30.2.1 Lunar crust

            30.2.2 Lunar mantle

            30.2.3 Lunar core

30.3 Geological history of the Moon

References

 

31. Meteorites

31.1 Fall phenomena

31.2 Frequency of falls and finds

31.3 Classification of meteorites derived from the asteroid belt

            31.3.1 Undifferentiated stony meteorites: Chondrites

            31.3.2 Achondrites derived from the asteroid belt

            31.3.3 Stony iron meteorites (differentiated)

            31.3.4 Iron meteorites (differentiated)

31.4 Planetary meteorites

            31.4.1 Martian meteorites: The SNC group of achondrites

            31.4.2 Lunar meteorites: Lunaites

31.5 Tektites

References

 

32 The planets, their satellites and smaller planetary bodies

32.1 The terrestrial planets

            32.1.1 Mercury

            32.1.2 Venus

            32.1.3 Mars

32.2 Asteroids

32.3 The giant planets and their satellites

            32.3.1 Astronomical exploration

            32.3.2 Atmosphere and interior of the giant planets

            32.3.3 The moons of Jupiter

            32.3.4 The icy moons of Saturn, Uranus and Neptune 

            32.3.5 The ring systems of the giant planets

32.4 The trans-Neptun objects (TNO) in the Kuiper belt

32.5 The dwarf planet Pluto and its moon Charon: A double planet

References

 

33. Introduction to geochemistry

33.1 Geochemical classification of the elements

33.2 Chemical composition of the bulk Earth

33.3 Chemical composition of the Earth's crust

            33.3.1 Calculation of the mean crustal composition: Clarke values

            33.3.2 Rare elements and their Clarke values

33.4. Trace-element partitioning and magmatic processes

            33.4.1 Basic concepts

            33.4.2 Trace-element fractionation during formation and differentiation of magmas

            33.4.3 Trace elements as indicators of the geotectonic setting of magmatic processes

33.5 Isotope geochemistry

            33.5.1 Introduction

            33.5.2 Stable isotopes

            33.5.3 Radiogenic isotopes in geochronology

33.6 The formation of the chemical elements

References

 

34. The genesis of our solar system

34.1 Earlier theories

34.2 Formation of stars

34.3 Composition of the solar nebula

34.4 Formation of planets

References

 

A Appendix

A.1 Important ionic radii and the coordination of cations against O^2-  

A.2 Calculation of mineral formulae

 

I Index

   Subject index

   Geographical index

O autorze

Martin Okrusch was born in 1934 in Guben, Germany, and studied Geosciences at the Free University of Berlin and the University of Würzburg, Bavaria. After having obtained his doctoral degree in 1961 and his Dr. rer. nat. habil. in 1968, he worked as a guest researcher at the University of California at Berkeley in 1968/1969 and became an associate professor at the University of Cologne in 1970. He was a full professor at the Technical University of Braunschweig from 1972 to 1982, and at the University of Würzburg from 1982 until his retirement in 2000. Since then he has continued to work on research projects in metamorphic and igneous petrology.

Hartwig Frimmel, born in 1960 in Linz, Austria, received his PhD in Geology and Petrology from the University of Vienna in 1987. Since 2004 he has been a full professor at the University of Würzburg, Bavaria, where he holds the Chair in Geodynamics and Geomaterials Research. He is an honorary research associate at the University of Cape Town, South Africa, where he rose from lecturer to associate professor between 1989 and 2004. From 1998 to 2004 he was the leader of the Earth Science subprogramme of the South African National Antarctic Programme. He is a former president of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits (SGA) and advisor at the national and European level on matters concerning mineral deposits. His main research interests range from economic geology, metamorphic petrology, Precambrian palaeoclimate and palaeogeography, to sedimentary geochemistry and the role of early life in metallogenesis.

Blurb

This book presents a translation and update of the classic German textbook of Mineralogy and Petrology that has been published for decades. It provides an introduction to mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry, discussing the principles of mineralogy, including crystallography, chemical bonding, and physical properties, and the genesis of minerals in a didactic and understandable way. Illustrated with numerous figures and tables, it also features several sections dedicated to the genesis of mineral resources. The textbook reflects the authors’ many years of experience and is ideal for use in lectures on mineralogy and petrology.