Metal Additive Manufacturing

ISBN-13: 9781119210788 / Angielski / Twarda / 2021 / 624 str.

Ehsan Toyserkani

Spis treści

Preface xvAbbreviations xvii1 Additive Manufacturing Process Classification, Applications, Trends, Opportunities, and Challenges 11.1 Additive Manufacturing: A Long-Term Game Changer 11.2 AM Standard Definition and Classification 41.3 Why Metal Additive Manufacturing? 51.4 Market Size: Current and Future Estimation 111.5 Applications of Metal AM 121.5.1 Medical and Dental 141.5.2 Aerospace and Defense 151.5.3 Communication 171.5.4 Energy and Resources 181.5.5 Automotive 191.5.6 Industrial Tooling and Other Applications 201.6 Economic/Environmental Benefits and Societal Impact 201.7 AM Trends, Challenges, and Opportunities 231.8 Looking Ahead 27References 282 Basics of Metal Additive Manufacturing 312.1 Introduction 312.2 Main Metal Additive Manufacturing Processes 322.2.1 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) 322.2.2 Directed Energy Deposition (DED) 412.2.3 Binder Jetting (BJ) 492.2.4 Emerging Metal AM Processes 552.3 Main Process Parameters for Metal DED, PBF, and BJ 622.3.1 Main Output Parameters 642.3.2 Combined Thermal Energy Source Parameters PBF and DED 652.3.3 Beam Scanning Strategies and Parameters for PBF and DED 682.3.4 Powder Properties for PBF, DED, and BJ 712.3.5 Wire Properties for DED 762.3.6 Layer Thickness for PBF, DED, and BJ 772.3.7 Ambient Parameters for PBF, DED, and BJ 792.3.8 Geometry-Specific Parameters (PBF) 802.3.9 Support Structures for PBF 822.3.10 Binder Properties for BJ 822.3.11 Binder Saturation for BJ 842.4 Materials 852.4.1 Ferrous Alloys 862.4.2 Titanium Alloys 862.4.3 Nickel Alloys 862.4.4 Aluminum Alloys 86References 873 Main Sub-Systems for Metal AM Machines 913.1 Introduction 913.2 System Setup of AM Machines 923.2.1 Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) 923.2.2 Laser Directed Energy Deposition (LDED) with Blown Powder Known as Laser Powder-Fed (LPF) 923.2.3 Binder Jetting (BJ) 933.3 Laser Basics: Important Parameters needed to be known for AM 933.3.1 Laser Theory 933.3.2 Laser Components 1003.3.3 Continuous Vs. Pulsed Laser 1013.3.4 Laser Types 1023.3.5 Laser Beam Properties 1093.4 Electron Beam Basics 1143.4.1 Comparisons and Contrasts between Laser and Electron Beams 1143.4.2 Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion Setup 1143.4.3 Electron Beam Mechanism 1163.4.4 Vacuum Chambers 1193.5 Powder Feeders and Delivery Nozzles Technology 1213.5.1 Classification of Powder Feeders 1213.5.2 Powder Delivery Nozzles for DED 1253.5.3 Powder Bed Delivery and Spreading Mechanisms 1283.5.4 Wire Feed System 1293.5.5 Positioning Devices and Scanners in Laser-Based AM 1303.5.6 Print-Head in Binder Jetting 1313.6 CAD File Formats 1333.6.1 CAD/CAM Software 1343.7 Summary 134References 1344 Directed Energy Deposition (DED): Physics and Modeling of Laser/Electron Beam Material Processing and DED 1374.1 Introduction 1374.2 Laser Material Interaction and the Associated Significant Parameters to Laser AM 1404.2.1 Continuous Versus Pulsed/Modulated Lasers 1414.2.2 Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission Factors 1434.2.3 Dependencies of Absorption Factor to Wavelength and Temperature 1444.2.4 Angle of Incidence 1444.2.5 Surface Roughness Effects 1474.2.6 Scattering Effects 1474.3 E-beam Material Interaction 1484.4 Power Density and Interaction Time for Various Heat Source-based Material Processing 1494.5 Physical Phenomena and Governing Equations during DED 1504.5.1 Absorption 1504.5.2 Heat Conduction 1514.5.3 Surface Convection and Radiation 1524.5.4 Fluid Dynamics 1534.5.5 Phase Transformation 1564.5.6 Rapid Solidification 1584.5.7 Thermal Stresses 1584.5.8 Flow Field in DED with Injected Powder 1594.6 Modeling of DED 1614.6.1 Analytical Modeling: Basics, Simplified Equations, and Assumptions 1614.6.2 Numerical Models for DED 1654.6.3 Experimental-based Models: Basics and Approaches 1664.7 Case Studies on Common Modeling Platforms for DED 1684.7.1 Lumped Analytical Model for Powder-Fed LDED 1684.7.2 Comprehensive Analytical Model for Powder-Fed LDED (PF-LDED) 1724.7.3 Numerical Modeling of LDED: Heat Transfer Model 1844.7.4 Modeling of Wire-Fed E-beam DED (WF-EDED) 1934.7.5 A Stochastic Model for Powder-Fed LDED 1954.8 Summary 200References 2005 Powder Bed Fusion Processes: Physics and Modeling 2035.1 Introduction and Notes to Readers 2035.2 Physics of Laser Powder bed Fusion (LPBF) 2045.2.1 Heat Transfer in LPBF: Governing Equations and Assumptions 2055.2.2 Fluid Flow in the Melt Pool of LPBF: Governing Equations and Assumptions 2155.2.3 Vaporization and Material Expulsion: Governing Equations and Assumptions 2185.2.4 Thermal Residual Stresses: Governing Equations and Assumptions 2195.2.5 Numerical Modeling of LPBF 2205.2.6 Case Studies on Common LPBF Modeling Platforms 2225.3 Physics and Modeling of Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing 2285.3.1 Electron Beam Additive Manufacturing Parameters 2285.3.2 Emissions in Electron Beam Sources 2305.3.3 Mathematical Description of Free Electron Current 2315.3.4 Modeling of Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (EB-PBF) 2335.3.5 Case Studies 2455.3.6 Summary 249References 2516 Binder Jetting and Material Jetting: Physics and Modeling 2556.1 Introduction 2556.2 Physics and Governing Equations 2576.2.1 Droplet Formation 2576.2.2 Droplet-Substrate Interaction 2636.2.3 Binder Imbibition 2656.3 Numerical Modeling 2706.3.1 Level-Set Model 2706.3.2 Lattice Boltzmann Method 2746.4 Summary 277References 2777 Material Extrusion: Physics and Modeling 2797.1 Introduction 2797.2 Analytical Modeling of ME 2817.2.1 Heat Transfer and Outlet Temperature 2817.2.2 Flow Dynamics and Drop Pressure 2837.2.3 Die Swell 2887.2.4 Deposition and Healing 2897.3 Numerical Modeling of ME 2917.4 Summary 296References 2968 Material Design and Considerations for Metal Additive Manufacturing 2978.1 Historical Background on Materials 2978.2 Materials Science: Structure-Property Relationship 2988.3 Manufacturing of Metallic Materials 2998.4 Solidification of Metals: Equilibrium 3018.5 Solidification in Additive Manufacturing: Non-Equilibrium 3028.6 Equilibrium Solidification: Theory and Mechanism 3048.6.1 Cooling Curve and Phase Diagram 3048.7 Non-Equilibrium Solidification: Theory and Mechanism 3078.8 Solute Redistribution and Microsegregation 3088.9 Constitutional Supercooling 3128.10 Nucleation and Growth Kinetics 3148.10.1 Nucleation 3158.10.2 Growth Behavior 3198.11 Solidification Microstructure in Pure Metals and Alloys 3218.12 Directional Solidification in AM 3248.13 Factors Affecting Solidification in AM 3258.13.1 Cooling Rate 3258.13.2 Temperature Gradient and Solidification Rate 3268.13.3 Process Parameters 3298.13.4 Solidification Temperature Span 3298.13.5 Gas Interactions 3308.14 Solidification Defects 3308.14.1 Porosity 3308.14.2 Balling 3328.14.3 Cracking 3358.14.4 Lamellar Tearing 3378.15 Post Solidification Phase Transformation 3378.15.1 Ferrous Alloys/Steels 3378.15.2 Al Alloys 3388.15.3 Nickel Alloys/Superalloys 3418.15.4 Titanium Alloys 3508.16 Phases after Post-Process Heat Treatment 3578.16.1 Ferrous Alloys 3578.16.2 Al Alloys 3578.16.3 Ni Alloys 3578.16.4 Ti Alloys 3588.17 Mechanical Properties 3588.17.1 Hardness 3598.17.2 Tensile Strength and Static Strength 3638.17.3 Fatigue Behavior of AM-Manufactured Alloys 3658.18 Summary 371References 3759 Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites 3839.1 Introduction 3839.2 Conventional Manufacturing Techniques for Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) 3849.3 Additive Manufacturing of Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) 3859.4 AM Challenges and Opportunities 3869.5 Preparation of Composite Materials: Mechanical Mixing 3879.6 Different Categories of MMCs 3899.7 Additive Manufacturing of Ferrous Matrix Composites 3909.7.1 316 SS-TiC Composite 3909.7.2 316 SS-TiB2 Composite 3929.7.3 H13-TiB2 Composite 3929.7.4 H13-TiC Composite 3939.7.5 Ferrous-WC Composite 3939.7.6 Ferrous-VC Composites 3949.8 Additive Manufacturing of Titanium-Matrix Composites (TMCs) 3959.8.1 Ti-TiC Composite 3969.8.2 Ti-TiB Composites 3969.8.3 Ti-Hydroxyapatite (Ti-HA) Composites 3999.8.4 Ti-6Al-4V-Metallic Glass (MG) Composites 4009.8.5 Ti-6Al-4V + B4C Pre-alloyed Composites 4019.8.6 Ti-6Al-4V +Mo Composite 4029.8.7 Structure and Properties of Different TMCs 4039.9 Additive Manufacturing of Aluminum Matrix Composites 4039.9.1 Al-Fe2O3 Composite 4059.9.2 AlSi10Mg-SiC Composite 4059.9.3 AlSi10Mg-TiC Composite 4069.9.4 2024Al-TiB2 Composite 4069.9.5 AlSi10Mg-TiB2 Composite 4079.9.6 AA7075-TiB2 Composite 4079.10 Additive Manufacturing of Nickel Matrix Composites 4079.10.1 Inconel 625-TiC Composites 4089.10.2 Inconel 625-TiB2 Composite 4099.11 Factors Affecting Composite Property 4099.11.1 Mixing of Matrix and Reinforcing Elements 4099.11.2 Size of Reinforcing Elements 4109.11.3 Decomposition Temperature 4119.11.4 Viscosity and Pore Formation 4119.11.5 Volume of Reinforcing Elements and Pore Formation 4129.11.6 Buoyancy Effects and Surface Tension Forces 4129.12 Summary 414References 41710 Design for Metal Additive Manufacturing 42110.1 Design Frameworks for Additive Manufacturing 42110.1.1 Integrated Topological and Functional Optimization DfAM 42210.1.2 Additive Manufacturing-Enabled Design Framework 42210.1.3 Product Design Framework for AM with Integration of Topology Optimization 42410.1.4 Multifunctional Optimization Methodology for DfAM 42710.1.5 AM Process Model for Product Family Design 42710.2 Design Rules and Guidelines 42710.2.1 Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF) 42710.2.2 Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion (EB-PBF) 43110.2.3 Binder Jetting 43310.2.4 Technologies Compared 43410.3 Topology Optimization for Additive Manufacturing 43410.3.1 Structural Optimization 43510.3.2 Topology Optimization 43610.3.3 Design-Dependent Topology Optimization 44410.3.4 Efforts in AM-Constrained Topology Optimization 45010.4 Lattice Structure Design 45810.4.1 Unit Cell 45810.4.2 Lattice Framework 45910.4.3 Uniform Lattice 46010.4.4 Conformal Lattices 46210.4.5 Irregular/Randomized Lattices 46210.4.6 Design Workflows for Lattice Structures 46310.5 Design for Support Structures 47310.5.1 Principles that Should Guide Support Structure Design 47410.5.2 Build Orientation Optimization 47410.5.3 Support Structure Optimization 47610.6 Design Case Studies 48310.6.1 Redesign of an Aerospace Bracket to be Made by LPBF 48410.6.2 Design and Development of a Structural Member in a Suspension Assembly Using EB Powder Bed Fusion 48710.6.3 Binder Jetting of the Framework of a Partial Metal Denture 48810.6.4 Redesign of a Crank and Connecting Rod 49010.6.5 Redesign of a Mechanical Assembly 49210.6.6 Solid-Lattice Hip Prosthesis Design 49810.7 Summary 501References 50111 Monitoring and Quality Assurance for Metal Additive Manufacturing 50711.1 Why are Closed-Loop and Quality Assurance Platforms Essential? 50711.2 In-Situ Sensing Devices and Setups 50911.2.1 Types of Sensors Used in Metal AM 50911.2.2 Mounting Strategies for In-line Monitoring Sensors in Metal AM Setups 52111.3 Commercially Available Sensors 52211.3.1 LPBF Commercial Sensors 52211.3.2 LDED Commercial Sensors 52511.4 Signal/Data Conditioning, Methodologies, and Classic Controllers for Monitoring, Control, and Quality Assurance in Metal AM Processes 52611.4.1 Signal/Data Conditioning and Controllers for Melt Pool Geometrical Analysis 52611.4.2 Signal/Data Conditioning and Methodologies for Temperature Monitoring and Analysis 53111.4.3 Signal/Data Conditioning and Methodologies for the Detection of Porosity 53211.4.4 Signal/Data Conditioning and Methodologies for Detection of Crack and Delamination 53711.4.5 Signal/Data Conditioning and Methodologies for Detection of Plasma Plume and Spatters 53811.5 Machine Learning for Data Analytics and Quality Assurance in Metal AM 53911.5.1 Supervised Learning 53911.5.2 Unsupervised Learning 54911.6 Case Study 55311.6.1 Design of Experiments 55411.6.2 In-Situ Sensors and Quality Assurance Algorithm 55511.6.3 Correlation Between CT Scan and Analyzed Data 56011.7 Summary 563References 56512 Safety 57712.1 Introduction 57712.2 Overview of Hazards 57812.3 AM Process Hazards 57812.4 Laser Safety in Additive Manufacturing 57912.4.1 Laser Categorization 57912.4.2 Laser Hazards 58112.4.3 Eye Protection 58412.4.4 Laser Protective Eyewear Requirements 58412.5 Electron Beam Safety 58512.6 Powder Hazards 58512.6.1 Combustibility 58612.7 Human Health Hazards 58712.8 Comprehensive Steps to AM Safety Management 58712.8.1 Engineering Controls 58712.8.2 Personal Protective Equipment 58812.8.3 AM Guidelines and Standards 58812.9 Summary 589References 590Index 591