Life in the Open Ocean

ISBN-13: 9781405145299 / Angielski / Twarda / 2022 / 1008 str.

Joseph J. Torres;Thomas G. Bailey

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Preface xviiiAcknowledgments xx1 Physics and the Physical Environment 1The Vastness of the Open Ocean 2The Properties of Water 2Density 4Viscosity 5Reynolds Number 6Drag 7Temperature 8The Oceans and Ocean Basins 9Ocean Circulation 10Surface Currents: Ocean Gyres and Geostrophic Flow 10Ocean Gyres and Geostrophic Flow 15Upwelling 16Deep-Ocean Circulation 16Water Masses 18Oxygen 24Pressure 24Sound 26Light 29Absorption and Scattering 31Traditional Depth Zones in the Ocean 33Concluding Thoughts 34References 352 Physiological Accommodation to Environmental Challenges 36Temperature 37Terms 38Temperature Effects on Survival: The Tolerance Polygon 39Temperature Effects on Rate Processes - The Q10 Approximation 41Patterns of Thermal Acclimation 43Climatic Adaptation in Ectotherms 44Temperature Compensation via Changes in Enzyme Concentration: The Quantitative Strategy for Short-term Change 47Compensation via Changes in Enzyme Quality - Isozymes, Allozymes, and Temperature Adaptation 47What Properties of Enzymes Can Be Changed? 51Lipids and Temperature 53A Membrane Primer 54Pressure 59Early Work 60Later Work 61Whole Animal Work 63Molecular Mechanisms of Adaptation to Pressure 64Pressure and Membranes 68Oxygen 69Severity of Oxygen Minima, "Dead Zones," and the Intertidal 71Adaptations to Oxygen Minima 71The Aerobic Strategy 71Salinity 75Depth 77Concluding Thoughts 83References 843 The Cnidaria 89Introduction 89Classification 89History 89Classification Schemes 90Phylum Cnidaria 91Subphylum Medusozoa 91Subphylum Anthozoa 91Subphylum Myxozoa 91The Hydromedusae 92Morphology Basics 92Morphological Detail and Life Histories 95The Scyphomedusae 99Basic Characteristics 99Morphological Detail and Life Histories 101General 101Coronatae 101Semaeostomae 102Rhizostomae 104The Cubomedusae 105Foraging Strategies 105General Considerations 106The Cnidae 107Venoms 108Interaction with Prey 109Direct Interception 110Encounter Zone 110The Model 114Swimming and Hunting Behavior 115Water Flow and Swimming 115Attraction Between Predator and Prey 116Diets, Feeding Rates, and Impacts on Prey Populations 117Rogue Hydroids: Predatory Polyps in the Midwater 119Feeding in the Cubomedusae 120Locomotion 121The Mesoglea 123Nerve Nets and Nervous Control of Swimming 124Senses and Sensory Mechanisms 125The Siphonophores 127Terminology and Affinities of Siphonophore "Persons" 128Whole Animal Organization 134Life Histories 137The Siphonophore Conundrum 137Feeding 138Fishing Behavior 138Digestion 139Diets and Selectivity 139Ecological Importance 141Locomotion 141Buoyancy 143Vertical Distribution 144Diurnal Vertical Migration 146Geographical Distribution 147Organization and Sensory Mechanisms 147Epithelial Conduction vs. Neural Conduction 148The Cnidaria Formerly Known as Chondrophora 150Classification 150Characteristics of the Chondrophoran Medusa 151Evolution Within the Chondrophora 151Feeding in the Chondrophora 151Locomotion 151References 1534 The Ctenophora 159Introduction 159Classification 159History 159Classification Schemes 160Ctenophore Basics 161Morphology 162Cydippida 162Lobata 165Cestida 168Beroida 168Platyctenida 168Ganeshida 171Thalassocalycida 173Foraging Strategies 173General Considerations 173Interaction with Prey 173The Cydippids 173The Lobates 174The Cestids 175The Beroids 175The Platyctenids 178The Ganeshids 178The Thalassocalycids 178Specialists 178Diet, Feeding Rates, and Impacts on Prey Populations 178Ctenophores as Invasive Species 179Digestion 181Nerves and Sense Organs: Coordination and Conduction 181Locomotion 182Distribution 185Ctenophores and Evolution 186References 1895 The Nemertea 192Introduction 192Classification 193History 193Of Germ Layers and Body Cavities 194Hydrostatic Skeletons 197Classification 200Morphology 200Proboscis Apparatus 202The Pelagic Body Form and Locomotion 204Color 205Nervous System 205Sense Organs 207Circulatory System 207Excretory System 209Digestive System 211Reproduction 213Development 215Foraging Strategies 215Vertical and Geographic Distributions 215References 2176 The Annelida 219Introduction 219History 221Classification 222Phylum Annelida 224Class Polychaeta 224Subclass Echiura 225Subclass Errantia 226Class Clitellata 226Subclass Oligochaeta 227Subclass Hirudinea 228The Pelagic Polychaetes 228Polychaete Subclass Errantia 229Order Phyllodocida 229Polychaete Subclass Sedentaria 229Order Terebellida 231Morphology 231General 231External Anatomy 233The Head Region 234The Trunk or Metastomial Region 236Internal Anatomy 239Excretory System 241Pelagic Species 243The Nervous System 244Sense Organs 244Circulatory System 246Pelagic Species 249Gas Exchange 249Pelagic Species 249Digestive System 250Reproduction 251Epitoky 252Synchronicity 252The Pelagic Species 254Tomopteris 254Alciopini and Lopadorrynchidae 254Development 255Locomotion 255Foraging Strategies 256The Hunters 256Diets 258The Suspension Feeders 258Poeobiidae, Chaetopteridae 259Distributions 259Geographical 259Vertical 267Bioluminescence 267References 2687 The Crustacea 273Introduction 273Arthropod Classification 273History 273Subphylum Crustacea 276Subphylum Hexapoda 277Subphylum Myriapoda 277Subphylum Chelicerata 277Panarthropoda Phyla 277Phylum Onychophora 277Phylum Tardigrada 277Synopsis of Universal Arthropod Characteristics 278The Crustacea 280Characteristics 281Classification 281Subphylum Crustacea 283Class Remipedia 283Class Cephalocarida 283Class Branchiopoda 283Class Copepoda 283Class Thecostraca 283Class Tantulocarida 283Class Mystacocarida 283Class Branchiura 283Class Pentastomida 284Class Ostracoda 284Class Malacostraca 284Subclass Phyllocarida 284Subclass Hoplocarida 284Subclass Eumalacostraca 284Crustacean Systems 292Integument and Molting 292Integument 292Molting 293Joints and Appendages 296Joints 296Appendages 297Excretory System 297Extrarenal Mechanisms 301How the System Works 303Nitrogen Excretion 303The Nervous System and Sensory Mechanisms 303The Central Nervous System 303Sensory Modalities 305Photoreception 305Mechanoreception 308Chemoreception 310Circulatory and Respiratory Systems 311Circulation and Oxygen Transport in the Blood: Hemocyanin 317Digestive System 318Basic Development 319The Micronektonic Crustacea 319The Pelagic Eucarida 321Order Euphausiacea 321Ecological Factors 339Order Decapoda 346Infraorder Anomura; Superfamily Galatheoidea; Family Munididae; Genera Pleuroncodes, Munida, and Cervimunida 378Order Amphionidacea 379Superorder Peracarida 380Orders Lophogastrida and Mysida 380Order Amphipoda 397Cameo Players 420References 4248 The Mollusca 439Introduction 439lassification 440History 440The Pelagic Molluscs 441Phylum Mollusca 442Class Caudofoveata 442Class Solenogastres 442Class Monoplacophora 442Class Polyplacophora 442Class Scaphopoda 443Class Bivalvia 444Class Gastropoda 445Class Cephalopoda 445Body Organization 445The Gastropoda 445Classification 445Class Gastropoda 449Classification Below Subclass Given for Pelagic Species Only 449Gastropod Systems and Structures 451The Digestive Tract 451Circulation 454Respiration 457Excretion 461Shell Formation 464The Nervous System 466Sensory Mechanisms 469The Pelagic Gastropods: Anatomy and Habits 475The Janthinid Snails 475The Heteropods 477The Pteropods 491Order Pteropoda 492The Nudibranchs 516The Cephalopoda 525Classification 528Basic Anatomy of the Major Cephalopod Groups 529General 529The Nautilida 529The Sepiida and Spirulida 531The Myopsida and Oegopsida 532The Octopodiformes 536Cephalopod Systems 540Feeding and Digestion 540Circulation 544Gas Exchange 544Excretion 549Nervous System and Sensory Mechanisms 552Locomotion and Buoyancy 569Life Histories 575Reproduction and Development 578Vertical Distribution and Migration 582Geographic Distribution 588References 5899 The Chordata 603Introduction 603Deuterostomes and the Phylogenetic Toolkit 604Classification 607ubphylum Tunicata 607Class Ascidiacea (2935) 607Class Appendicularia (68) 607Class Thaliacea (78) 607Basic Anatomy and Life History 609The Ascidians 609The Pyrosomes 610The Salps 613The Doliolids 618The Appendicularia 625The Appendicularian House 629Tunicate Systems 634Locomotion and Buoyancy 634Pyrosomes 634Salps 635Doliolids 637Appendicularia 638Nervous Systems and Sensory Mechanisms 638Pyrosomes 639Doliolids 639Salps 641Appendicularia 643Gas Exchange, Circulation, and Excretion 645Trophic Role 647Bioluminescence 653Predators, Parasites and Other Interactions 654Geographic and Vertical Distributions 656References 66010 The Fishes 669Introduction 669The Deep-Sea Groups 672A Brief History of Fishes 674The Jawless Fishes 674The Jawed Fishes 676Teleosts 676Elasmobranchs 677Holocephali 677The Classes of Living Fishes 678Class Myxini 678Class Petromyzonti 679Class Elasmobranchii 682Class Holocephali 691Class Coelacanthi 693Class Dipneusti 695Class Cladistii 695Class Actinopterygii 695Subclass Chondrostei 696Subclass Holostei 696Subclass Teleostei 696Fish Systems 758Basic Anatomy 758External Features and Terms 758Skull and Skeleton 758Feeding and Digestion 760Food Acquisition, the Three Dominant Modes: Ramming, Sucking, and Biting 760Food Sorting: The "Pharyngeal Jaws" 764Digestion: The Alimentary Canal 765Circulation, Respiration, and Excretion 767Circulation 767Gas-Exchange in the Teleosts and Elasmobranchs 771Unidirectional Flow and Countercurrent Exchange: Maximizing the Concentration Gradient 774Blood and Oxygen at the Respiratory Surface 775CO2 Transport-Far Different from O2 780The Bohr and Haldane Effects 781Secretion of Gases into the Swimbladder of Fishes 782Nitrogen Excretion 785Osmotic and Ionic Regulation 785Introduction 785Osmosis and Diffusion 787The gills 790Esophagus 791Stomach 793Intestine 793Locomotion 793Musculature 793Red and White Muscle 795Drag and Swimming Costs 796Maximum Swim Speeds 797Endothermy 799Warm-Brained Billfishes 799Swimming in Mesopelagic Fishes 801Buoyancy 801The Nervous System 804Anatomy and Basics 804The Brain 806Cranial Nerves 807Sensory Mechanisms 809Sensory Modalities 809Photoreception 811Mechanoreception 815The Inner Ear and Sound Reception 818Electroreception 820Chemoreception: Olfaction and Gustation 822Camouflage, Bioluminescence, Photophores 824Camouflage 824Bioluminescence and Photophores 824References 82911 Communities 845Introduction 845The Gulf of Mexico 846The Northern California Current 847The Antarctic 852System Comparisons 858The Decapods and Mysids 876The Euphausiids 881The Myctophids 882Non-myctophid Fishes 883The Cephalopods 884Gelatinous Zooplankton and Amphipods 885Concluding Observations 887Physical and Biological Factors that Change 887Mean Annual Temperature 887Seasonal Cycling 887Annual Production 887Current Patterns 887References 88812 Energetics 893Introduction 893A Model Energy Budget 894Digestibility of Biomolecules 896Energy Value of Biomolecules 897Measuring Metabolic Rate 898Oxygen Consumption Rate-Modifying Factors 898Activity 899Experimental Protocol 900Routine Metabolic Rate 900Animal Size as a Modifier of Metabolism 901Life History Strategies 902Metabolism and Composition of Pelagic Species 914Metabolism of Euphausiids, Decapods, Mysids, and Amphipods 929Proximate Composition of Pelagic Decapods, Mysids, and Euphausiids 930Terminology 931Trends with Depth of Occurrence 931Seasonal Changes 932Trends Across Systems 932Metabolism of Mesopelagic Fishes 933Proximate Composition of Pelagic Fishes 934Trends with Depth of Occurrence 934Trends Across Systems 934Energy and Life History in the Midwater Fauna 935Midwater Fishes 936The Cephalopods 938Pteropods, Nemerteans, Annelids, Salps, and Pyrosomes 938The Cnidaria and Ctenophora 939Conclusions 939References 940Appendix A Classification of the Chordata 945Glossary 959Index 963

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Joseph J. Torres is Emeritus Professor of Marine Science, College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St Petersburg, FL, USA. He is an internationally-renowned marine biologist with research interests in the physiological ecology of the deep- and open-oceanic realms.Thomas G. Bailey is retired director of NOAA's Caribbean Marine Research Center following a long career in deep-ocean science at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution as head of the Department of Zooplankton Ecology. He is a highly respected in-situ marine scientist known for innovative techniques in capturing and experimenting with delicate sea creatures at great depth.