Jet, Rocket, Nuclear, Ion and Electric Propulsion: Theory and Design

ISBN-13: 9783642461118 / Angielski / Miękka / 2012 / 766 str.

W. H. T. Loh; W. H. T. Loh

Opis

During the last decade, rapid growth of knowledge in the field of jet, rocket, nuclear, ion and electric propulsion has resulted in many advances useful to the student, engineer and scientist. The purpose for offering this course is to make available to them these recent advances in theory and design. Accordingly, this course is organized into seven parts: Part 1 Introduction; Part 2 Jet Propulsion; Part 3 Rocket Propulsion; Part 4 Nuclear Propulsion; Part 5 Electric and Ion Propulsion; Part 6 Theory on Combustion, Detonation and Fluid Injection; Part 7 Advanced Concepts and Mission Applications. It is written in such a way that it may easily be adopted by other universities as a textbook for a one semester senior or graduate course on the subject. In addition to the undersigned who served as the course instructor and wrote Chapter I, 2 and 3, guest lecturers included: DR. G. L. DUGGER who wrote Chapter 4 "Ram-jets and Air-Aug mented Rockets," DR. GEORGE P. SUTTON who wrote Chapter 5 "Rockets and Cooling Methods," DR . . MARTIN SUMMERFIELD who wrote Chapter 6 "Solid Propellant Rockets," DR. HOWARD S. SEIFERT who wrote Chapter 7 "Hybrid Rockets," DR. CHANDLER C. Ross who wrote Chapter 8 "Advanced Nuclear Rocket Design," MR. GEORGE H. McLAFFERTY who wrote Chapter 9 "Gaseous Nuclear Rockets," DR. S. G. FORBES who wrote Chapter 10 "Electric and Ion Propul sion," DR. R. H. BODEN who wrote Chapter 11 "Ion Propulsion," DR."

Spis treści

One — Introduction.- 1. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics and Aerodynamics.- [1-1] Introduction.- [1-2] Equation of State.- [1-2.1] Equation of State of Real Gases.- [1-3] First Law of Thermodynamics.- [1-3.1] Specific Heats.- [1-3.2] Internal Energy.- [1-3.3] Relationship Between Specific Heats cp and cv.- [1-3.4] Enthalpy.- [1-3.5] Entropy.- [1-3.5.1] Reversible Process.- [1-3.5.2] Adiabatic Process.- [1-3.5.3] Isentropic Process.- [1-3.5.4] Polytropic Process.- [1-3.5.4.1] Work Done.- [1-3.5.4.1.1] Special Case for Isentropic Case where n = k.- [1-3.5.4.1.2] Heat Added.- [1-3.6] Mixture of Gases.- [1-3.7] Entropy-Enthalpy Diagram.- [1-3.7.1] Remarks on Entropy-Enthalpy Diagram.- [1-3.8] The Ideal (Reversible) Cycles.- [1-3.9] Cycle Work, Cycle Heat Added, and Cycle Efficiency.- [1-4] Steady Flow Energy Equation.- [1-4.1] Stagnation Enthalpy or Total Enthalpy, H.- [1-4.2] Application of Steady Flow Energy Equation to Compressor and Turbine Analysis.- [1-5] One-Dimensional Steady Flow Analysis.- [1-5.1] One-Dimensional Energy Equation.- [1-5.2] One-Dimensional Continuity Equation.- [1-5.3] One-Dimensional Momentum Equation without Fluid Shearing or Friction Losses.- [1-5.3.1] One-Dimensional Momentum Equation with Fluid Shearing or Friction Losses.- [1-5.4] Speed of Sound.- [1-5.5] Mach Number.- [1-5.6] Another Form of Energy Equation.- [1-5.7] Isentropic Flow Equations.- [1-6] Normal Shock Waves and Rayleigh and Fanno Lines.- [1-7] Oblique Shock Waves.- [1-8] One-Dimensional Convergent — Divergent Nozzle Flow.- [1-8.1] Nozzle Efficiency.- [1-8.2] Nozzle Thrust.- [1-9] Supersonic Inlet.- [1-9.1] Constant Geometry Supersonic Inlet.- [1-9.2] Variable-Geometry Supersonic Inlet.- [1-9.3] Inlet Diffuser Efficiency.- [1-10] One-Dimensional Flow Analysis with Area Change, Friction and Heat Addition.- [1-10.1] One-Dimensional Flow Analysis with Area Change, Friction and Heat Addition (Additional Analysis).- [1-10.2] Mixing of Two Flows in a Non-Constant Area Duct.- [1-11] Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis.- [1-11.1] Ram Compression and Ram Pressure Recovery.- [1-11.2] Compressor Compression and Compressor Work.- [1-11.3] Combustion and Burner Efficiency.- [1-11.3.1] Combustion.- [1-11.4] Turbine Expansion and Turbine Work.- [1-11.5] Nozzle Expansion and Nozzle Efficiency.- [1-12] Variations of Basic Gas Turbine or Jet Engine Cycles.- [1-12.1] Intercooling.- [1-12.2] Reheat.- [1-12.3] Regeneration.- [1-12.4] After-burning.- [1-12.5] Water Injection.- [1-12.6] Pressure Loss in Various Components.- [1-13.1] Output, Input and Thermal Efficiency.- [1-13.2] Jet Thrust.- [1-13.3] Propeller Thrust.- [1-13.4] Specific Fuel Consumption.- [1-14] Variations of Gas Turbine Cycle and Turbojet Cycle by Gas Table Method.- [1-14.1] Gas Table.- [1-14.2] Example 1: Gas Turbine Analysis.- [1-14.3] Example 2: Turbojet Analysis.- Two — Jet Propulsion.- 2. Thermodynamic Cycle Analysis of Gas Turbines and Air-breathing Propulsion Systems.- [2-1] Introduction.- [2-2] Symbols and Sketches of Air-breathing Propulsion Systems.- [2-3] Gas Turbine Cycles.- [2-4] Air-breathing Propulsion Systems: Turbojet, Turboprop, Ducted Fan, Ram Jet and Ducted Rocket.- [2-4.1] Turbojet Cycles.- [2-4.2] Turboprop Cycles.- [2-4.3] Ducted Fan Cycles.- [2-4.4] Off-Design Point Engines.- [2-4.4.1] Compression Rate Variation with Altitude and Air Speed (Variation with Compressor Inlet Temperature) at Constant Compressor Speed.- [2-4.4.2] Air Flow Variation with Altitude and Airplane Speed at Constant Compressor Speed.- [2-5] Rotary Matrix Regenerator for Turboprop Applications.- [2-5.1] Discussion.- [2-5.2] Operating Principles.- [2-5.3] Theory and Design.- [2-6] Analytical Solutions for Rotary Matrix, Wire Screen Heat Exchangers.- [2-7] Pulse Jet.- [2-7.1] Discharging from Point c to Point a.- [2-7.1.1] Supercritical Discharging When (P/p ? [(k + 1)/2] k/(k ? 1).- [2-7.1.2] Subcritical Discharging When (P/p ? [(k + 1)/2] k/(k? 1).- [2-7.2] Combustion from Point b to Point c.- [2-7.3] Charging Process from Point a to Point b.- [2-7.3.1] Supercritical Charging and Subcritical Discharging.- [2-7.3.2] Subcritical Charging and Subcritical Discharging.- [2-7.3.3] Subcritical Charging and Supercritical Discharging.- 3. Aerodynamic Design of Axial Flow Compressors and Turbines.- [3-1] Introduction.- [3-2] Compressible Flow Analysis.- [3-2.1] Radial Equilibrium.- [3-2.2] Continuity Equation.- [3-2.3] Density Relationship.- [3-2.4] Method of Calculation.- [3-3] Turbine Analysis.- [3-4] Appendix: Two Dimensional Incompressible Compressor Design.- [3-4.1] Turning Angle ? as f(CL) and Derivation of Blade Efficiency ?b.- 4. Ramjets and Air-Augmented Rockets.- [4-1] Preliminary Performance Calculations.- [4-2] Diffuser Design.- [4-2.1] Inviscid Design of External-Compression Diffusers.- [4-2.2] Off-Design Operation, Boundary Layer Problems, and Instabilities.- [4-2.3] Hypersonic Inlets.- [4-3] Combustor and Nozzle Design.- [4-4] Considerations for Preliminary Design of Ramjet Vehicles.- [4-5] Air-Augmented Rockets.- [4-6] Engines with Supersonic Combustion.- [4-7] Concluding Remarks.- [4-8] Acknowledgments.- [4-9] Nomenclature.- Three — Rocket Propulsion.- 5. Rocket Classifications, Liquid Propellant Rockets, Engine Selection, and Heat Transfer.- [5-1] Definitions and Classification of Rocket Propulsion Engines.- [5-2] Liquid Propellant Rockets.- [5-3] Selection Criteria.- [5-4] Heat Transfer (based largely on Reference 7).- [5-4.1] Radiation Cooling.- [5-4.2] Heat-Sink Cooling.- [5-4.3] Low Flame Temperature Metal Chamber.- [5-4.4] Turbine Exhaust Gas Cooling.- [5-4.5] Insulation Cooling.- [5-4.6] Dump Cooling.- [5-4.7] Ablative Cooling.- [5-4.8] Regenerative Cooling.- [5-4.9] Film Cooling.- [5-4.10] Transpiration Cooling.- [5-4.11] Combined Methods.- 6. Solid Propellant Rockets.- [6-1] Composition of a Solid Propellant.- [6-2] Processability Criteria.- [6-3] Performance of Typical Propellants.- [6-4] Burning Rate — Pressure Relationships.- [6-5] Propellant Area Ratio.- [6-6] Temperature Sensitivity of Burning Equations.- [6-7] Erosive Burning.- [6-8] Effect of Spin on Burning Rate.- [6-9] Mechanism of Homogeneous Propellant Burning.- [6-10] Mechanism of Composite Propellant Burning.- [6-11] Correlation of Burning Rates with Oxidizer Activation Energy.- [6-12] Effect of Composition on Burning Rate.- [6-13] Catalysts.- [6-14] Mechanical Properties.- [6-14.1] Uniaxial Tensile Test.- [6-14.2] Uniaxial Shear Test.- [6-14.3] Bulk Dilution Test.- [6-14.4] Poisson’s Ratio.- [6-14.5] Glass Transition.- [6-15] Nomenclature.- 7. Hybrid Rocket Theory and Design.- [7-1] Introduction.- [7-2] Hybrid Combustion with Negligible Radiation.- [7-2.1] The Physical Process.- [7-2.2] Convective Heat Transfer.- [7-2.3] The Role of Nonvolatile Particles.- [7-3] Operating Characteristics of Hybrid Rockets with Negligible Radiation.- [7-3.1] Regression Rate Insensitivity to Thermochemical Parameters.- [7-3.2] Regression Rate Dependence Upon Grain Configuration.- [7-3.3] Throttling and Off-Design Point Operation.- [7-3.4] Combustion Efficiency.- [7-3.5] Regression Rate Dependence Upon Pressure.- [7-4] Hybrid Combustion in Radiative Motors.- [7-4.1] Regression Rate Dependence Upon Radiant Energy Flux.- [7-4.2] Evaluation of Convective Heat Transfer Qc.- [7-4.3] Evaluation of Radiative Heat Transfer Qr.- [7-5] Transient Operation of Hybrid Rockets.- [7-5.1] Penetration of Temperature Profile.- [7-5.2] Critical Regression Rate.- [7-6] Design of Hybrid Rockets.- [7-6.1] Specification of Mission.- [7-6.2] Preliminary Design Procedure.- [7-6.3] Example Configurations.- Four — Nuclear Propulsion.- 8. Nuclear Rocket Prqpulsion.- [8-1] Nuclear Rocket Engine Design and Performance.- [8-1.1] Types of Nuclear Rockets.- [8-1.2] Overall Engine Design.- [8-1.3] Nuclear Rocket Performance.- [8-2] Component Design.- [8-2.1] Nuclear Rocket Reactors.- [8-2.1.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.1.2] Reactor Core Materials.- [8-2.1.3] Thermal Design.- [8-2.1.4] Mechanical Design.- [8-2.1.5] Nuclear Design.- [8-2.1.6] Shielding.- [8-2.2] Nuclear Rocket Nozzles.- [8-2.2.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.2.2] Heat-Transfer Analysis.- [8-2.2.2.1] Over-all Problem.- [8-2.2.2.2] Hot-Gas Boundary.- [8-2.2.2.3] Cold-Gas Boundary.- [8-2.3] Propellant Feed Systems.- [8-2.3.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.3.2] Turbopump Power Cycle.- [8-2.3.3] Turbopump.- [8-2.3.3.1] Pumps.- [8-2.3.3.2] Turbines.- [8-2.3.3.3] Power Transmission.- [8-2.3.3.4] Critical Speeds.- [8-2.3.4] Valves.- [8-2.4] Nuclear Rocket Engine Control.- [8-2.4.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.4.2] Power Level Control.- [8-2.4.3] Chamber-Pressure Control.- [8-2.5] Thrust-Vector-Control Systems.- [8-2.5.1] General Design Considerations.- [8-2.5.2] Types of Systems.- [8-2.5.2.1] Auxiliary Thrusters.- [8-2.5.2.2] Jet-Deflection Systems.- [8-2.5.2.2.1] Fluid-Injection Systems.- [8-2.5.2.2.2] Jetevators and Jet Vanes.- [8-2.5.2.3] Gimbal Systems.- 9. Radioisotope Propulsion.- [9-1] Alternative Approaches.- [9-1.1] Direct Recoil Method.- [9-1.2] Thermal Heating Method.- [9-2] Basic Thruster Configurations.- [9-3] Propulsion System and Upper Stage.- [9-4] Relative Mission Capabilities.- [9-4.1] Primary Propulsion.- [9-4.2] Auxiliary Propulsion.- [9-5] Thruster Technology.- [9-5.1] Design Criteria.- [9-5.1.1] Performance.- [9-5.1.2] Safety.- [9-5.1.3] Design Criteria Summary.- [9-5.2] Heat Source Development.- [9-5.2.1] Radioisotope Fuel.- [9-5.2.2] Capsule Technology.- [9-5.2.2.1] General Considerations.- [9-5.2.3] Thermal Design.- [9-5.2.4] Fabrication and Non-Destructive Testing Techniques.- [9-5.2.5] Pressure Containment.- [9-5.2.6] Impact.- [9-5.2.7] Heat Source Simulation.- [9-5.2.8] Oxidation and Corrosion of Encapsulating Materials.- [9-5.3] Nozzle Performance.- [9-6] Summary.- Five — Electric and ION Propulsion.- 10. Electric and Ion Propulsion.- [10-1] Basic Concepts.- [10-1.1] Energy Sources.- [10-1.2] The Separately Powered Rocket.- [10-1.3] Effects of Variable Mass.- [10-1.4] Power Requirements and Rocket Efficiency.- [10-1.5] Effects of Gravitational Fields.- [10-2] Thrust Devices.- [10-2.1] Thermal Thrusters.- [10-2.1.1] The Resistojet.- [10-2.1.2] Arc Jets.- [10-2.1.3] Ablative Thrusters.- [10-2.2] Electrostatic Thrusters.- [10-2.2.1] Ion Engines.- [10-2.2.1.1] High Pressure Arcs (Duoplasmatron).- [10-2.2.1.2] Contact Thrusters.- [10-2.2.1.3] The Bombardment Thruster.- [10-2.2.2] Colloid Thrusters.- [10-2.3] Plasma Thrusters.- [10-2.3.1] j x B Machines.- [10-2.3.2] MPD Arcs.- [10-2.3.3] Pulsed Inductive Accelerators.- [10-3] State of the Art and Future Trends.- [10-3.1] Sample Problem 1.- [10-3.2] Sample Problem 2.- [10-3.3] Sample Problem 3.- 11. Ion Propulsion.- [11-1] Introduction.- [11-2] Fundamentals.- [11-2.1] Performance Analysis.- [11-2.1.1] Characteristic Velocity.- [11-2.1.2] Payload.- [11-2.1.3] Specific Power.- [11-2.2] Electrical Thrust Devices.- [11-2.2.1] Ion and Colloid.- [11-3] Ion Rocket Engine.- [11-3.1] Ion Sources.- [11-3.2] Electromagnetic Fields.- [11-3.3] Charged Colloid Sources.- Six — Theory on Combustion, Detonation and Fluid Injection.- 12. Interaction Flows Due to Supersonic Secondary Jets.- [12-1] Introduction.- [12-2] Jets Directed Upstream.- [12-3] Transverse Jets.- [12-4] Summary.- 13. Gasdynamics of Explosions.- [13-1] Theoretical Aspects.- [13-1.1] Fundamentals of Non-steady Gasdynamics.- [13-1.1.1] Continuity Equation.- [13-1.1.2] Equation of Motion.- [13-1.1.3] Entropy Equation.- [13-1.1.4] Characteristic Relations.- [13-1.2] Gasdynamic Discontinuity.- [13-1.2.1] Mechanical Conditions.- [13-1.2.2] The Hugoniot Relationship.- [13-1.2.3] Oblique Discontinuity.- [13-1.3] Simple Wave.- [13-1.3.1] Simple Wave in Non-Steady Flow.- [13-1.3.2] Simple Wave in Steady Flow.- [13-2] Analytical Aspects.- [13-2.1] Vector Polar Method.- [13-2.1.1] Wave Interactions.- [13-2.1.2] Wave Intersections.- [13-3] Appendix: Salient Properties of the Hugoniot Curve.- 14. Supersonic Combustion Technology.- [14-1] Introduction.- [14-2] Performance of Supersonic Combustion Ramjet.- [14-2.1] Possible Air-breathing Engine Schemes.- [14-3] Supersonic Combustion.- [14-3.1] Qualitative Description of Supersonic Combustion Controlled by Mixing.- [14-3.1.1] Supersonic Combustion Controlled by Diffusion.- [14-3.1.2] Supersonic Combustion Controlled by Heat Convection.- [14-3.2] Analysis of the Reaction Process.- [14-3.2.1] Determination of Reaction Times.- [14-3.2.2] Numerical Results.- [14-3.2.3] Discussion of Results.- [14-3.2.4] Tangential Injection with Chemical Reaction.- [14-3.3] Analysis of Mixing Processes.- [14-3.3.1] Mixing of Non-Reacting Flows.- [14-3.3.2] Discussion of Experimental Results of Non-Reacting Gases.- [14-3.3.3] Mixing with Pressure Gradients.- 15. Combustion Instability Theory.- [15-1] Introduction.- [15-1.1] Unstable Combustion.- [15-2] Review of Theoretical Developments.- [15-2.1] Early Developments and the Time Lag Concept.- [15-2.2] Current Status in Liquid Propellant Rockets.- [15-2.3] Current Status in Solid Propellant Rockets.- [15-3] Formulation and Analysis.- [15-3.1] Low Frequency, Capacitive Type Stability.- [15-3.2] High Frequency, Wave Type Instability.- [15-3.3) The Energy Approach.- [15-3.4] Non-linear Effects.- [15-3.5] Nozzle Outflow.- [15-4] Concluding Remarks.- Seven — Advanced Concepts and Mission Applications.- 16. An Advanced Space Propulsion Concept.- [16-1] Introduction.- [16-1.1] General Consideration for Propulsion in Space.- [16-1.2] Power Supply.- [16-1.3] Propellant Storage and Handling Facilities.- [16-1.4] Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Thrusters.- [16-1.5] Advanced Electric Propulsion Systems for Space Vehicles.- [16-2] Sputtering, A Thrust Generation Mechanism.- [16-2.1] Sputtering Phenomena.- [16-2.2] Possible Performance of Sputtering Thrusters.- [16-2.3] Energy Efficiency of the Sputtering Process.- [16-3] Analyses of an Elementary Mission with Different Electric Thrusters.- [16-3.1] General Consideration.- [16-3.2] Performance Formula for Electric Thrusters.- [16-3.3] Optimization with Electric Thrusters.- [16-4] Summary and Concluding Remarks.- 17. Zero g Propulsion Problems.- [17-1] Introduction.- [17-2] Basic Definitions.- [17-2.1] Zero Gravity.- [17-2.2] Engineering Considerations of Zero-g Environment.- [17-2.3]Principle of Minimum Energy.- [17-3] Hydrostatics.- [17-3.1] The Variational Problem.- [17-3.2] Solutions for the Variational Problem.- [17-3.3] Conclusions from Hydrostatic Analysis.- [17-4] Static Configurations in Zero g.- [17-5] Hydrodynamics.- [17-5.1] Propellant Slosh at Zero g.- [17-5.2] Propellant-Position Control.- [17-5.3] Capillary Stability.- [17-6] Dimensional Analysis, Modeling, and Test.- [17-6.1] Gas Interface Velocity.- [17-6.2] Propellant Accumulation.- [17-6.3] Gas Ingestion.- [17-6.4] Analytical Considerations of Gas Ingestion.- [17-7] Capillary Barriers.- [17-7.1] Static Stability.- [17-7.2] Dynamic Stability.- [17-8] Zero g Propellant Gauging.- [17-9] Summary and Conclusions.- [17-10] Appendix A. Derivation of Slosh Frequency.- [17-11] Appendix B. Derivation of Flow Rate during Propellant Settling.- 18. Propulsion Systems-Comparison and Evaluation for Space Missions.- [18-1] Goals.- [18-2] Propulsion-Vehicle-Mission Integration.- [18-3] Elements of Integrated Transportation System Comparison (ELV, GISV, CISV and HISC).